H&M Apparel Chains

Apart from Spain’s Zara, the Swedish retailer Hennes & Mauritz (H&M) differentiates itself from most apparel chains for its idiom â€Å"treat fashion as if it were perishable produce. † In Europe, H&M is considered to be an industry leader because it offers the â€Å"on-trend† look at an extremely lower price. In 2000, it decided to begin to establish a predatory marketing strategy of expansion within the US. The strengths of H&M are that it is a well-known company worldwide; it responds quickly to trends, particularly in its similarities to haute couture and the catwalk within a turnaround cycle speed of 3 weeks; and it is recognized for its incredibly low prices on trendy, seasonal apparel. The weaknesses of H&M are that it is relatively unknown in the States; it has yet to distinguish and set itself apart from inexpensive American apparel chains; and its goods are not high-quality. Primary Problem: Flawed Marketing Research The absence of a definitive marketing strategy is of primary concern. With benefit of hindsight, some deficiencies in H&M’s research design merited attention. It was geared towards the simple idea of expansion rather than establishing genuine market presence. Because it tried to expand too quickly, it imprudently purchased outlets too big and in poor locations, instead of building up its presence more slowly and carefully. H&M believed no competition could ever be more on-trend and more fashionable than they. However, H&M showed the fallacy of attempting growth beyond immediate capabilities in a growth-at-any-cost mindset. The rationale for embracing great growth is that it needed to run with the ball if it were to ever get that rare opportunity to suddenly double or triple sales. But there are times when a slower, more controlled growth is prudent. Secondary Problem: External Factors Apparently, it did not learn from Benetton’s past mistakes. For example, it too had tried to establish a strong presence in the US and had failed. Similarly, The Gap, a US company, also tried to further expand but choked because of the numerous retailers with their offshore resources being able to knock off current fashions much more quickly and competing favorably. Discount stores, such as Wal-Mart and Target, have big boxes in the suburbs also with offshore facilities enabling them to offer current fashion at low prices. This means that even if H&M is first to introduce the fashions, within weeks the competition could offer similar merchandise. In addition to obvious competitors, H&M did not underscore or create enough attention to its prospective customers of its distinguishing characteristics. Certainly, it recognized the importance of the dyadic relationship by hiring salespeople with similar characteristics to their customers. But it still was not effective in communicating its formula. Recommended Solutions 1. Instead of just wholly owned subsidiaries, H&M could enter into a joint venture with an American department store to at least build some presence and recognition. Licensing is a fairly low-risk method for entering into a joint venture. An example of this sort of arrangement would be what Guess has with Macy’s stores. Although H&M may have given up most of the profits, this would be a prudent manner in expanding its recognition throughout the US. H&M should still own and operate facilities in the US where it is more urban and less surrounded by discount stores. . The symbolic value of H&M needs to be underscored either through an advertisement campaign or celebrity endorsements. Although celebrities demand big bucks, the endorsements are worth the price if done in moderation and with the best of the best. Obviously, H&M recognized this in 2007 when it contracted with Madonna to do commercials and magazine advertisements. Of course, the effectiveness of these methods is difficult to measure but as long as the communication is remembered, recognized, or recalled, this will instill further presence in H&M’s goal of expansion.

Radical Policies of President Franklin D Roosevelt

President Franklin D. Roosevelt created the New Deal program to attack the Great Depression that was plummeting the nation into a financial crisis; his plan can be said to have been a radical departure from Roosevelt†s predecessors. Roosevelt was brought to power with the expectation that he would initiate a major shift in the nature of government, and his actions following his campaign can rightfully be dubbed Roosevelt†s predecessors can be said to have been more conservatives than radicals. President Coolidge†s objective was to reduce the significance of the presidency and to limit the powers of the overnment. He was content to let all of the nation†s problems work themselves out. He twice vetoed the McNary-Haugen bill, which would have drastically helped farmers by buying crop surpluses. President Hoover believed that the role of the gov†t. was not to solve the problems, but to help the problems disappear. He stated that â€Å"if gov†t solved society†s problems directly, people would give up their freedom and gov†t. would become the problem. † From public pressure, however, Hoover began to promote more direct fed. volvement, initiating such programs as the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Agric. Marketing Act, which helped farmers by buying their crop surpluses. His actions had little effect on the economy, but FDR made sure that his actions did. Roosevelt took a much larger step in using fed. involvement, more then any other President had done before. Roosevelt†s philosophy differed in that he promoted direct relief for the â€Å"forgotten man† in financial trouble. He saw nothing wrong with gov†t. activism, and he chose to use the fed. gov†t. to try to regenerate economic growth. Some programs, including the Agric. Adjustment Act and the National Reconstruction Administration, even allowed gov†t to become too involved, resulting in Supreme Court legislation declaring them illegal and unconstitutional. His instituted loan and price-support programs which farmers became dependent upon, the Wagner Act as the overseer of labor-management relations, and a program to regulate the banking system and financial systems. In other words, he significantly changed the role of gov†t in the ecomony and in society by granting gov†t more control over them. After the New Deal and the Second Hundred Days were over, society held the expectation that the Pres. and the gov†t. were responsible for correcting any or all problems that they had. Even so, Roosevelt†s radical actions had stabilized the economy and prevented economic collapse. Conservatives argue that Roosevelt undermined individualism and free enterprise, but really he simply saved the nation with his ideas and reforms. Roosevelt may have used the fed. gov†t. intensely in society, but he saved thousands of unemployed workers and helped his fellow man.

Barilla Essay Research Paper Barilla SpA AGiorgio

Barilla Essay, Research Paper Barilla SpA ( A ) Giorgio Maggiali was going progressively frustrated. As manager of Logistics for the universe # 8217 ; s largest pasta manufacturer, Barilla SpA, he was acutely cognizant of the turning load that demand fluctuations imposed on the company # 8217 ; s fabrication and distribution system. Since his assignment in 1988 as Director of Logistics, he had been seeking to do headroom on an advanced thought proposed by Brando Vitali, who had served as Barilla # 8217 ; s manager of Logistics before Maggiali. The thought, which Vitali called Just-in-Time Distribution ( JITD ) , was modeled after the popular # 8220 ; Just-In-Time # 8221 ; fabricating construct. In kernel, Vitali proposed that, instead than follow the traditional pattern of presenting merchandise to Barilla # 8217 ; s distributers on the footing of whatever orders those distributers placed with the company, Barilla # 8217 ; s ain logistics organisation would alternatively stipulate the # 8220 ; appropriate # 8221 ; bringin g quantities-those that would more efficaciously fitting end consumer # 8217 ; s needs yet would besides more equally administer the work load on Barilla # 8217 ; s fabrication and logistics systems. For two old ages Maggiali, a strong protagonist of Vitali # 8217 ; s proposal, had tried to implement the thought, but now, in the spring of 1990, small advancement had been made. It seemed that Barilla # 8217 ; s clients were merely unwilling to give up their authorization to put orders as they pleased ; some were even loath to supply the elaborate gross revenues informations upon which Barilla could do bringing determinations and better its demand prognosiss. Possibly more disconcerting was the internal opposition from Barilla # 8217 ; s ain gross revenues and selling organisations, which saw the construct as impracticable or unsafe, or both. Possibly it was clip to fling the thought as merely impracticable. If non, how might he increase the opportunities that the thought would be accepted? Company Background Barilla was founded in 1875 when Pietro Barilla opened a little store in Parma, Italy on via Vittorio Emanuele. Bordering the store was the little # 8220 ; research lab # 8221 ; Pietro used to do the pasta and staff of life merchandises he sold in his shop. Pietro # 8217 ; s boy Ricardo led the company through a important period of growing, and in the 1940s, passed the company to his ain boies, Pietro and Gianni. Over clip, Barilla evolved from its modest beginnings into a big, vertically incorporate corporation with flour nothings, pasta workss, and bakery-product mills located throughout Italy. SPA ( Societa per Azioni ) can be translated as # 8220 ; Society for Stockholders # 8221 ; and interpreted as In a crowded field of over 2,000 Italian pasta makers, Pietro and Gianni Barilla differentiated their company with a high quality merchandise supported by advanced selling plans. Barilla revolutionized the Italian pasta industry # 8217 ; s selling patterns by making a strong trade name name and image for its pasta, selling pasta in a certain -cardboard box with a recognizable colour form, instead than in majority, and puting in large-scale advertisement plans. In 1968, to back up the double-digit gross revenues growing the company experienced during the 1960s, Pietro and Gianni Barilla began building of a 1.25 million square metre state-of-the art pasta works in Pedrignano, a rural town 5 kilometer outside of Parma. The cost of this monolithic facility-the largest and most technologically advanced pasta works in the world-drove the Barillas deeply into debt. In 1971, they sold the company to the American multi-national house W. R. Grace, Inc. Grace brought extra capital investing and professional direction patterns to the company and launched an of import new Mulino Bianco ( # 8220 ; White Mill # 8221 ; ) line of bakeshop merchandises. Throughout the 1970s, confronting hard economic conditions -and new Italian statute law that both capped retail pasta monetary values and increased cost-of-living allowances for employees, Grace struggled to do its Barilla acquisition wage off. In 1979, Grace sold the company back to Pietro Barilla, who by so had secured the # 8216 ; necessary financess to buy it. The capital investings and organisational alterations that Grace had brought to Barilla, combined with bettering market conditions, helped Pietro Barilla launch a successful return to the company. During 1980s, Barilla enjoyed an one-year growing rate of over 21 % ( see Exhibit 1 ) . Growth was realized through enlargement of bing concerns, both in Italy and other European states, every bit good as through acquisition of new, related concerns. In 1990, Barilla was the largest pasta maker in the universe, doing 35 % of all pasta sold in Italy and 229/6 of all pasta sold in Europe. Barilla # 8217 ; s portion in Italy comprised its three trade names: the traditional Barilla trade name represented 32 % of the market, the staying 3 % of market portion was divided between its Voiello trade name ( a traditional Neapolitan pasta viing in the costly section of the semolina pasta market ) and its Braibanti trade name ( a high-quality, traditional Parmesan pasta made from eggs and semolina ) . About half of Barilla # 8217 ; s pasta was sold in northern Italy and half in the South, where Barilla held a smaller portion of the market than in the North but where the market was larger. In add-on, Barilla held a 29 % portion of the Italian bakery-products market. In 1990, Barilla was organized into seven divisions: three pasta divisions ( Barilla, Voiello, and Braibanti ) the Bakery Products Division ( fabricating medium to hanker shelf-life bakeshop merchandises ) , the Fresh Bread Division ( fabricating really short shelf-life bakeshop merchandises ) , the Catering Division ( administering bars and frozen crescent rolls to bars and pastry stores ) , and the International Division. ( Exhibits 2 and 3 show the organisational construction of -the company. ) Corporate central offices were located next to the Pedrignano pasta works

Business Case Study Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Case Study Review - Essay Example -Hello- I am not asking for anything different than what is in the attached insturctions. All steps 1-5 were included in request where an action plan is step 5. Please compelte this and 2 days is fine I will fix the rest. Â   The initial instruction: To read the case study and apply all of the steps as indicated on my attachment. You can use bullets but make sure all steps are answered for the McDonalds "Seniors" Case Study I did answer all the steps 1-4 in bullet form for that is what you requested. Step 5 cannot be answered in bullet form so I assumed it was not part of the task. Furthermore your order consists of 4 pages only at 250 words a page. That would amount to a mere 1000 words. With this bullet answers, we have already covered 1498 words. We have exceeded the word limit by 498 words already. you are not obliged to do any extra work for free. If you have completed the paper up to the initial instructions, please upload the same file to the order page and advise the Customer to place a new order. Or let us know for mow many extra pages we should charge him, if the additional work pertains to this paper 5. No documents have been forwarded. All information is from observations of the Manager. Data on population of the town: number and ages- can be obtained from national statistics office if the town; data on average number of elderly that stay up to 3pm or mid afternoon can be recorded by the door guard. All information is from observations of the Manager hence it is a first hand account and very reliable. The source definitely has an interest in the case since she is the manager and it is her responsibility. 8. The problem is urgent because the number of elderly staying for prolonged periods is increasing. The impact of other possible effects relative to this cannot be estimated at this time but immediate action is better than a singed reputation. 9. The stakes are high. If the manager is unable to find a

Risk management Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6500 words

Risk management - Literature review Example A probabilistic incident like oil spill event or oil spill contact to an environmentally responsive area cannot be forecasted; only an approximation of its likelihood can be quantified (Scarlett, Linkov and Kousky, 2011, p.20). Before applying the risk management practices; risk assessment should be done in order to know that what can go wrong at a definite time period and what the outcome will be if it does. Therefore, it is necessary to find out the probable occurrences that could lead to an oil spill, together with the feasible resulting impacts. (Imo, 2010, p.3). This paper will focus on the methodology and structure, purposes of risk management, application of risk management in oil exploration programs, identification of spillage risks, risk assessment of oil spillage risks, risk response planning for oil spillage risks and risk monitoring and control for oil spillage risks. 1.1. Aims and Objectives Aims: The aim of this paper is to develop a framework that will help the compan ies in order to control their oil spillage risks in oil exploration programs. Objectives: The objectives will be to investigate the nature of oil spillage risks; identify and summarize the existing understanding about oil spillage risk management; discover good practices in managing oil spillage risks and to provide a new framework that summarizes the findings and can be used further for managing oil spillage risks. Besides this, the paper has also focused on different methods used to manage the risk of oil spillage. 1.2. Background 1.2.1. The nature of oil spillage risk in oil exploration program The oil industry is concerned with a long history of spills on the North Slope and the probability of future spills is high. Indeed, there has been an oil spillage once a day, on... From this research it is clear that the oil industry is concerned with a long history of spills on the North Slope and the probability of future spills is high. Indeed, there has been an oil spillage once a day, on average, from the time when gas and oil development began on the North Slope. In order to make the subject worse, ocean currents move the chemicals and oil hundreds of miles. Further, in the Arctic Ocean, cleaning up oil spills would lead to enormous challenges. Suppression and recovery at sea hardly ever leads to the removal of more than a comparatively small fraction of a large oil spill, i.e. only 10-15% and often significantly less. Till date, no technology subsists in order to clean up oil in the sea ice circumstances and late-season spills would stay behind until the following year. Furthermore, cold water splits down oil much more slowly than the warm water. Climate change has considerably weakened the basis on which Arctic ecosystems function. Species mainly at ris k include polar bear, walruses, ringed seals, beluga and bowhead whales and coastal birds. So, it is found that the environmental risk is associated with the oil exploration programs. Oil spillage refers to an unintentional release of oil in a water body due to human activity and is regarded as form of pollution. Oil spillage occurs due to release of crude oil from underwater wells and pipeline, or offshore drilling rig, or a tanker, frequently presenting a danger to marine life and environment.

Community Health Nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Community Health Nursing - Research Paper Example The black community in this area has a long history and has continued to show tremendous growth in many aspects as compared to the white population that has continued to diminish. Many African Americans making up the community moved to this area that was previously associated with the whites and have since become the majority according to the 2010 census statistics. The community has a rich culture a mixture of the black culture and the white culture of the Germans immigrants who used to stay in this place. Demographic and Epidemiological data Baden community has a total population of 7,268 people of which the blacks make up a total of 6,676 while the whites are 461. The American Indian and Alaska native are 9; the native Hawaiian and other pacific islanders have been found to comprise of 1 individual (US. Census Bureau, 2011). The Asian are 3 while other people of two or more races are 96 of which the Hispanic and Latinos have been found to be 27. The other category comprised of 22 people and this is according to the 2010 census results. The current population of Baden has declined since the 2000 census from 8,441 to the current 7,268 representing a -14% decline. This has been attributed to the high rate of crime in the area that has contributed greatly to the decline in the population. This statistics represent the general trend in St. Louis County where the general population has been declining since the last census (US. Census Bureau, 2011). Reports also show that the place is a food desert and therefore many people have no access to fresh food (Gustin, 2010). Research has shown that without access to fresh food many people develop a range of health problems that range from diabetes to other nutrition-influenced illnesses such as obesity (Omoleke, 2011). The food deserts issue does not seem to affect Baden only. Statistics show that the entire country is faced with the problem of food deserts where people cannot access fresh fruits and vegetables. Approxima tely 23.5 million Americans are said to be living in a food desert (The week, 2011). A food desert is defined by the US department of Agriculture as any census district where approximately 20% of the inhabitants are living below the poverty line and 33% are staying over a mile from the nearest supermarket (Starr, 2011). Both the lower end and the upper end of the American population are affected with the problem of food desert with the problem existing both in urban and rural areas. In America, areas such as West Virginia, Ohio and Kentucky that are majorly rural are faced with this problem as well as areas such as Detroit, Chicago and New York which are in the urban category (Starr, 2011). Windshield Survey A closer exploration of Baden reveals a lot of information about this community. There are various types of housing in this areas and these range from modern houses to the old architectural designs of houses. Residential houses are seen to be many and of different categories. So me or good stone houses mansions while some like those around the train tracks are mostly houses that are built for convenience purposes. Many of them are in bad state. There are many schools in Baden most of which are private and these include kindergartens and elementary schools. Baden school is the only public school in the community and serves many students. Baden has many churches most of which are Christian churches and these include Church of God, Our Lady of the Holy Cross, Ebenezer Lutheran Church, Dove Covenant Christian Center, Holy

Reflective Log in Social Work Practice (FOUR Reflective Logs 750 Words Essay

Reflective Log in Social Work Practice (FOUR Reflective Logs 750 Words Each) - Essay Example Through my own prerogative, I was able to develop, implement and introduce troubleshooting strategies that made my friend re-consider taking an abortion. These strategies can also be used in other case scenarios. I realised the value and need to equip myself with technical information and methodologies in handling more complex tasks like teenage pregnancy. Young people like me should be aware of such social work concepts to be able to analyse these social problems with young people who are experiencing such concern. I should have approached her boyfriend in a more informal way rather than in an accusing manner, especially in the idea of having an abortion. Being the father of the unborn child, he should be man enough to face his responsibilities. He should have been more supportive in this critical moment of her life. I would call my friend’s parents, who are working abroad, and inform them of their daughter’s current situation. It is possible that my friend is somehow not getting the attention that she needed from her parents so instead relied on the presence of her boyfriend and friends. Although she has friends and guardians to support her, my friend would still need the support of her parents that would assure her that despite what happened they still love and would take care of her and her unborn child. There is a need to have a community-based institution or â€Å"teenage clinic† that could handle the growing need number of local teenage pregnancy. A school nurse, health visitor or youth worker might be able to help give ideas for setting up the clinic. Young people like me should be encouraged and involved in this kind of social work endeavour. There is a need to increase the youth’s awareness on teenage pregnancy. Schools, healthcare institutions and the local government should educate adolescents the effects of teenage pregnancy, means to which it can be avoided and how this issue can be disseminated. Five years ago, my neighbourhood

Book Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Book Review - Essay Example In these chapters, Campbell shows how slaves arrived in Texas, whose population increased from around 5,000 to over 160,000, thereby composing over 30 percent of the region’s population by 1860. In the other parts of the book, Campbell provides a survey examining the standpoints of the slave owners, and the economic conditions, life, and culture of the slaves. Through this, Campbell demonstrates his grasp and understanding of a wide array of sources, and utilizes 181 slave narratives from the Federal Writers Project interviews, which he uses in a quantitative analysis. There are several extensive studies on the thirteen out of the fifteen states that allowed slavery during that era. Texas is one of the two states that lack relevant research on this topic. Campbell sees this issue and decides to resolve it by producing this empirical work that uses both quantitative and qualitative research methods to that explains five fundamental topics: 1) the development and escalation of s lavery; 2) the psychological and physical conditions of slavery; 3) impact of slavery to slave owners either individually or collectively; 4) legal and economic functions of slavery; and, 5) effect of Civil War to slavery. Campbell presents a few statements regarding the uniqueness of the conditions of slavery in Texas. For one, since Texas was originally within Mexico’s jurisdiction, and since Mexico is opposed to slavery, this situation created a group of black people who were considered bondsmen for a year less than a century. These blacks were neither slaves nor free people. Similarly, freed slaves who remained in Texas were viewed as neither citizens nor property. However, chapter 4 of the book suggests that the slavery economics in Texas is similar to those in the other southern states. Campbell explores this concept as well in other chapters as he tackles the slaves’ work conditions in chapter 6, and treatment and material situation in chapter 7. This book leans toward portraying that despite a few distinctions, the conditions of slavery in Texas do not differ from the other states, making it a good source of information about history, but not too much on slavery. Evaluation of Sources The book showcases 15 tables, 9 maps, and 4 appendices that provide vital data mostly on the geographic growth and economic nature of slavery. It also contains a massive bibliography regarding slavery in Texas. It is striking how the author utilizes a wide array of sources to complete the book. He uses the qualitative research method to present sources gathered from court and plantation records, contemporary newspapers, census, diaries, and letters. These sources provide insights on the concepts of protecting the society from slaves and protecting the slavery institution. He also uses the quantitative research approach to present sources gathered from narratives of former slaves, probate inventories, tax records, and government consensus. The narratives cons ist of 181 stories told by former slaves that depicts their feelings and views on the â€Å"peculiar institution.† He took the common data among the narratives and turned

Fieldwork report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fieldwork report - Essay Example While providing much needed support to the patient and the family in order for them to cope with the emotional stress associated with being critically ill, it has also been found that nurses and health care staff assigned to intensive care units that deal with end of life situations deal with more stress than nurses assigned to other wards (Kostopoulou & Katsouyanni, 2006). During my visit to the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Hong Kong, I observed the palliative care given to patients in their oncology ward. This a mixed ward where they give care to both geriatric and pediatric patients with cancer. As an observer, I was able to see the developments made in giving palliation and what needs to be improved still. Queen Elizabeth Hospital is one of the many hospitals in Hong Kong that provides palliative care to their patients in the oncology ward. The services that they offer include providing possible placement and hospice care for patients. In providing palliative care, the patient and their families are given support for quality of life by preventing and providing relief from emotional, spiritual and physiological impacts of chronic illnesses such as cancer. ... The giving of palliative care may differ a bit in giving care to different age groups. Such as with pediatric palliative care that deals with children with the idea that children with chronic illnesses may not survive to become adults (Liben, Papadatou, & Wolfe, 2007). Education and psychosocial support is also given to patients and their families. In educating families, it is giving them options with clinical trials that can help with the prognosis of their illnesses. The psychosocial aspect helps patients and their families deal with the emotional and psychological stresses associated with being chronically ill (Chan, 2001). Culturally speaking, Chinese people find it a privilege to spend the last moments of their loved ones. This is slowly changing with the advancement of medicine and the constraints of living spaces in Hong Kong. Most deaths happen in the ICU or hospices and this has a significant impact especially on the elderly who seek palliative care. Even health care workers are aware of this human factor and may sometimes allow patients who are admitted to hospices to go home for a few days. This home leave improves the psychological and emotional aspect of the patient, but in most cases is brought back to the hospice or hospital (Ngai, Yuen, & Wong, 2006). CONCEPTS BEHIND PALLIATIVE CARE IN CLINICAL ONCOLOGY Palliative care has a significant role when dealing with patients who are chronically ill. The scope of care does not only extend to the patient, but to the family of the patient as well who together with the patient deal with the stresses and emotional burdens of being ill. Palliative care also gives importance on the role of health care workers in giving appropriate psychosocial support and exploring other clinical studies that can help in the

Whitney Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Whitney - Case Study Example As the discussion highlights more emphasis would be put on client and customer by introducing new program on Social skills. Focus would be on developing skills in social networking and developing constructive human relationship. It is vital as Whitney is in consultation where people are required to interact with diverse population. The new recruits should undergo training as it would help them to understand the organizational culture and facilitate their integration with the system so their competencies can be better exploited to suit the needs of the clients. If and when the employees or executives are required to cater to new requirements of client and if their academic qualifications and experience requirement additional inputs, they must undergo training to upgrade their skills for optimal performance. Whitney must evaluate its programs through performance measurement and feedback from clients and in-house colleagues. This would help to evaluate the effectiveness of programs as and when used with clients. Improvements on social skills could also gauged through feedback from colleagues and satisfaction of clients.

A Case Against Slavery & Uncle Tom’s Cabin Essay Example for Free

A Case Against Slavery Uncle Tom’s Cabin Essay HB Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin was a powerfully evocative condemnation of slavery, and was famous in its own time. While many held that Stowe herself knew nothing about slavery or southern life, having never seen southern plantation life, it had its intended effect regardless: to stir up anti-slavery sentiment in the north, and to a lesser extent, in the South. Chapter VII is called â€Å"A Mother’s Struggle,† and it brings together many of the themes that dominate this book. First, the centrality of motherhood and the invincible power of a mother that is soon to be separated from her only son leads the action of this work. Second, the dominance of the Protestant Christian faith, a faith that serves to both assist slaves in tolerating their condition as well as providing them the strength to escape is the engine of the action. Since God is on the side of those who oppose slavery, ultimately, their struggle will emerge victorious and hence, the strength to persevere is present. Hence, this chapter is a central part of the work as it synthesizes the main themes of the book in rather stark terms, since this chapter is really the first â€Å"action† chapter of the book, that is, it is the beginnings of Eliza’s escape from her bondage and traces her moves northward to the Ohio river. The first real issue that drives Eliza to escape is the fact that she and her son are possibly to be sold. The Shelby family that owns them seeks to sell several slaves to pay off debts, and Eliza, who is not poorly treated by her mistress, Mrs. See more:  First Poem for You Essay Shelby, will not be separated from her only son (1-2). Here, the institution of slavery is shown in its worst aspect: the breaking up of families in the interest of the financial solvency of their masters. It was debated how often this was actually done, but this first few pages show the slave owning Shelby family as more or less humane, but forced due to circumstances to part with slaves, slaves, like Tom himself, who has befriended the son of the Shelby family. But stronger than all was maternal love, wrought into a paroxysm of frenzy by the near approach of a fearful danger. Her boy was old enough to have walked by her side, and, in an indifferent case, she would only have led him by the hand; but now the bare thought of putting him out of her arms made her shudder, and she strained him to her bosom with a convulsive grasp, as she went rapidly forward (1). This passage is an important part of the introduction to this chapter in that it places maternal power at the center of the war against slavery. It is this fear mixed with love that will keep Eliza moving forward. â€Å"Sublime is the dominion of the mind over the body, that, for a time, can make flesh and nerve impregnable, and string the sinews like steel, so that the weak become so mighty. † It is love, ths power of mind, the love for her son that keeps her moving forward, rather to face death, freezing, or torture if caught rather than be apart from her boy (2). It seems that, as Eliza continues her trek forward, that her body has become completely subsumed under her mind, and her love. Hence, she refuses to eat what she has packed for the trip North, and instead only wants her son to eat (3). But along with the power of a mother’s love, is the power of the belief in God and his Scriptures: â€Å"An hour before sunset, she entered the village of T , by the Ohio river, weary and foot-sore, but still strong in heart. Her first glance was at the river, which lay, like Jordan, between her and the Canaan of liberty on the other side. † (4). This passage is telling, in that it provides Old Testament references to the move toward liberty. The move of slaves northward to freedom is likened to the move of Israelites, themselves slaves to the Egyptians, over the Jordan river to the Canaanite valley which God has chosen for his people. For the slave treated harshly and not given even basic freedoms, the move northward was considered the promised land, the land of freedom, regardless of the hardships of slavery: this is the indictment of the institution as a whole. Slaves wold risk everything to avoid the institution, even a more or less comfortable existence that Eliza enjoyed with the Shelby’s. In this chapter, the mood is that if God closes one door, He opens another. So with Eliza gets to the river, the barrier between herself and freedom, it has been largely iced over (5). Given this, the ferry will not run. However, she is briefly taken in by a family connected with the ferry house on her side of the river. The action quickly and awkwardly shifts back to the slave quarters at Mrs. Shelby’s, where the slaves are speaking about the upcoming sale. Speaking of the slave trader, Chloe says, â€Å"He desarves it! † said Aunt Chloe, grimly; â€Å"hes broke a many, many, many hearts, I tell ye all! † she said, stopping, with a fork uplifted in her hands; â€Å"its like what Masr George reads in Ravelations, souls a callin under the altar! and a callin on the Lord for vengeance on sich! and by and by the Lord hell hear em so he will! † (7). This is very important, since it is clear that the slaves hold that God is on their side, not the other way around. On the other hand, this point of view is made more ambagious by Uncle Tom’s statement that damming people to Hell is not a very nice thing to do, and that eternal punishment is not a fit crime for selling slaves, which after all, is not eternal (7). This creates a concept of equivocalness where two factions of the slave population have two different points of view: the first, that of Chloe, that slavers are evil and will be punished to Hell, and the more moderate view of Uncle Tom, that slavers are victims of circumstance, who themselves, did not invent this institution. But Aunt Chloe responds, though indirectly to Uncle Tom: â€Å"Dont natur herself kinder cry out on em? † said Aunt Chloe. â€Å"Dont dey tear der suckin baby right off his mothers breast, and sell him, and der little children as is crying and holding on by her clothes, dont dey pull em off and sells em? Dont dey tear wife and husband apart? † said Aunt Chloe, beginning to cry, â€Å"when its jest takin the very life on em? and all the while does they feel one bit, dont dey drink and smoke, and take it oncommon easy? Lor, if the devil dont get them, whats he good for? † And Aunt Chloe covered her face with her checked apron, and began to sob in good earnest. (8) Again, Stowe is making another attack on slavery here, using the splitting up of families as her center line of argument. Since she is dealing with a family that treats their slaves moderately well, she cannot really rely on the physical violence argument so common in anti-slavery polemics. Since motherhood is at the center of this work, it seems that the basic argument against slavery is that since slaves have no freedom, they cannot fight back when their families are taken apart. Hence, Stowe holds that the family, especially the mother, is the institution of society that maintains moral norms and hence, will be the institution that takes slavery apart. If anything, this is the primary case against slavery being made here. Moving back to the action on the Ohio river, Eliza has been spotted by the slave trader, the very focus of evil throughout this book. It must also be pointed out that the trader and his style of life are equally repugnant to the Shelby’s (10). But as far as Liza is concerned, when she is spotted, A thousand lives seemed to be concentrated in that one moment to Eliza. Her room opened by a side door to the river. She caught her child, and sprang down the steps towards it. The trader caught a full glimpse of her just as she was disappearing down the bank; and throwing himself from his horse, and calling loudly on Sam and Andy, he was after her like a hound after a deer. In that dizzy moment her feet to her scarce seemed to touch the ground, and a moment brought her to the waters edge. Right on behind they came; and, nerved with strength such as God gives only to the desperate, with one wild cry and flying leap, she vaulted sheer over the turbid current by the shore, on to the raft of ice beyond. It was a desperate leap impossible (14). This passage is worth extended comment. First of all, as God has closed the door of the ferry, he has opened another, more dangerous door, that of skipping over the ice cakes. This seems powerfully symbolic: the ice represents the cold hearts of the slave traders and even the good slave owners. Under intense pressure, the power of family–of motherhood–takes over, what seems impossible is not so, if God is on your side. Slavery, it seems, will be defeated by slave mothers trampling on the cold hearts of the slave owners through material love and devotion to get to freedom. On the other side, Eliza meets a friendly farmer, Mr. Symmes, who assists in her escape. Stowe remarks on page 10, â€Å"So spoke this poor, heathenish Kentuckian, who had not been instructed in his constitutional relations, and consequently was betrayed into acting in a sort of Christianized manner, which, if he had been better situated and more enlightened, he would not have been left to do. † Again, a powerful statement is being made here: since slave owners were normally of the â€Å"gentlemanly† class, that is, the civilized class, civilization is equated with the dominating of slaves. Since poor whites were not slave owners (and treated only little better than the blacks) and were not part of their civilization, they had not â€Å"learned† about the inferiority of blacks and the racial and class hierarchy of the South. Therefore, their lack of civilization is a good thing, since simple common sense seems to dominate over â€Å"civilized manners. † Hence, the hero of the story (or at least of the chapter) is this simple farmer from Kentucky who does not represent civilization, but simple agrarian manners and common sense morality. Hence, in conclusion, Stowe is making several points here. First, that the real evil of slavery is the destruction of the family. If the family is the center of social life in that it is the bearer of tradition and moral values, then its destruction must lead to the beastialization of society. This might explain the evil of the slave traders, since they seem to specialize in breaking up families, and hence, are the very symbol of this beastialization. Second, a mother’s love, coupled with God’s force, will lead the southern slaves to freedom. Third, that freedom must be earned, and this is applicable to slaves and slave owners, both of which have not known freedom. Slave owners are as debased by slavery as the slave, since he is dependent upon them and hence, not free. Lastly, that nothing is impossible with God, and with a love of freedom. This is the case against slavery, in that it crushes all of these impulses, impulses that God as implanted in the human spirit and hence, are part of His creation, now enslaved by others. All quotes above are from the Virginia University edition of Uncle Toms Cabin, Published by the University of Virginia E-Text Center of the University of Virginia Library System. (http://etext. lib. virginia. edu/etcbin/toccer-new2? id=StoCabi. sgmimages=images/modengdata=/texts/english/modeng/parsedtag=publicpart=7division=div1)

Role of Pectic Enzymes in Fruit Ripening Process

Role of Pectic Enzymes in Fruit Ripening Process ABSTRACT Fruits are important natural sources of human nutrition for regulation of several metabolic functions and maintenance of good health. They are one of the significant commercial food commodities and their economic value depends on several limiting factors. They easily undergo ripening in a shorter period of time and have a limited post-harvest existence. Fruit ripening is a common phenomenon occurring in fruits based on which they are harvested, consumed directly or processed for various purposes. It is an intricate phenomenon involving extremely synchronized, genetically encoded and an irreversible process that results in a sequence of biochemical, physical and organoleptic alterations in a fruit. This finally develops into soft, palatable and a ripe fruit which possess necessary quality characteristics. On the other hand, excessive ripening results in spoilage of fruits. Ripening is related to the modifications of cell wall polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, hemicellulose and p ectins. Despite of several changes occurring in fruits such as loss of turgor, starch degradation and loss of contents during ripening, enzyme-catalysed variations to cell wall composition and structure are considered as main reason for softening of fruits. Pectic enzymes are a group of enzymes responsible for pectin degradation in fruits. They are termed as pectinase that includes pectic lyase, polygalacturonase, pectic methyl esterase and rhamnogalacturonase. Pectic enzymes degrade pectin resulting in softening and senescence in fruits. Pectins are the important polysaccharides occurring in middle lamella and primary cell wall. It contributes to the texture, consistency and quality of fruits. Degradation of pectin during ripening process was known to cause fruit tissue softening. Recent developments in molecular biology have helped in better understanding of fruit ripening mechanism due to enzymic activity. A review about the role of pectic enzymes on the plant cell walls to bring about softening during ripening process is discussed. Keywords: Fruits, cell wall polysaccharides, pectin, pectic enzymes, ripening INTRODUCTION Fruits are important sources of human nutrition and it is a commercially essential food commodity. Fruits are greatly specialized structures developed from a matured and pollinated ovary which have aesthetic characteristics with delicate aroma, striking colours, flavour, taste and juiciness from the edible seed vessels or receptacles (Prasanna et al., 2007). Prasanna et al., (2007) have indicated that fruits possess a wide variety of nutritional substances like vitamins (B-complex, C and K), phenolics and carotene providing higher energy value. They are classified as temperate, tropical and sub-tropical fruits based on their distribution in nature (Prasanna et al., 2007). When completely matured, harvesting of fruits is done. Maturity and ripening of fruits depends on their catalytic mechanism and based on the respiration pattern and biosynthesis of ethylene during ripening, harvested fruits are grouped as climacteric (capable of ripening after detachment from parent plant) and non-c limacteric (unable to continue ripening when detached from parent plant) type (Prasanna et al., 2007). Fruit ripening is an intricate irreversible phenomenon which is highly synchronized and genetically encoded causing biochemical, physiological and organoleptic alterations resulting in a ripened edible fruit (Prasanna et al., 2007). Several factors involved in ripening of fruits are shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Factors involved in fruit ripening (Koning, 1994) Plant cell walls are complex structures which contain polysaccharides, proteins and enzymes. Pectin which contributes about one-third of the plant cell wall in dicots plays a crucial role in tissue development, adherence of cells, apoplastic porosity and so on (Almeida and Huber, 2007). Pectin is in control of maintenance of integrity of cell wall. It forms a cross-link between cellulose microfibrils and xyloglucans as shown in Figure 2. During ripening, pectin is greatly modified by the enzyme actions resulting in relaxing of cellular interconnections. This leads to loosening and hydrolysis of cell wall polymers which is the main reason for softening of fruit tissues (Gwanpua et al., 2014). Figure 1: Plant cell wall structure (Sticklen, 2008) Texture, an important quality attribute in fruits is altered leading to softening of fruits during ripening (Barret and Gonzalez, 1994). The mechanisms involved in fruit ripening were not understood clearly. It may be due to several factors like turgor loss, starch deprivation, loss of nutritional contents and so on (Ali et al., 2004). The major changes in texture causing softness where due to enzyme-catalysed changes in the cell wall assembly and composition, cell wall polysaccharides (pectin and cellulose) solubilization partially or completely (Waldron and Faulds, 2007). It has been studied by Rodriguez and Restrepo (2011) that, Pectic constituents is an important determinant of the firmness and consistency of the fruits (Van Buren, 1991). Pectinesterase (PE), polygalacturonase (PG) and Pectateliase (PL) are major pectic enzymes responsible for softening of fruit tissues during ripening (Rodriguez and Restrepo, 2011). Rodriguez and Restrepo (2011) have also indicated that, combine d action of these enzymes add to the final texture of fruit and when these enzymes undergo excessive reactions with pectin, it results in notorious softening and provides perfect conditions for microbial attack. Gwanpua et al., (2014) studied that softening is one of the significant changes occurring in climacteric fruit ripening. They were more prone to microbial infections and physical damages and may adverse during prolonged storage. Fruit firmness determines its economic value and considerable effects were taken to control softness of fruits due to enzymic action, metabolic changes and changes in storage conditions (Gwanpua et al., 2014). Softening associated with the ripening mediated by the pectic enzyme action on plant cell walls of different fruits is discussed in this study. 2. Pectic enzymes Pectinases are commonly referred to as pectic enzymes. They act upon pectin constituents of cell wall matrix resulting in softening of fruits. Polygalacturonase (PG), Pectin methyl esterase (PME), Pectin lyase (PL) are some of the major pectic enzymes classified based on their type of action involved in degradation of pectins. The modes of action of these enzymes are as shown in figure 2. Figure 3: Mode of action of pectolytic enzymes (Van Rensburg and Pretorius, 2000). PME causes de-esterification by catalysing the pectin methyl group hydrolysis (Prasanna et al., 2007). They were known to usually attack on the methyl ester linkages of a galacturonate entity which lies next to non-esterified galacturonate component. This process acts as a precondition for polygalacturonase activity (Prasanna et al., 2007). Rodriguez and Restrepo (2011) implicated that pectin methyl esterases (PME) were found to alter pectin in case of low methoxy pectin and in polygalacturonic acid by hydrolysis of methyl ester bonds in esterified carboxyls. It was observed that the softening process could be controlled by the control of this enzyme action in fruits like pear, grape, citrus, tomato, strawberry, arracacha, potato, papaya, kiwi and guava (Rodriguez and Restrepo, 2011; Prasanna et al., 2007). PG, referred as Pectolytic glycanase is an essential hydrolytic enzyme playing an important role in pectin termination (Prasanna et al., 2007). They act on pectic acids and ÃŽ ±-1, 4- glycosidic bonds are hydrolysed between the residues of galacturonic acid in galacturonans. They are categorized as endo-PG and exo-PG (Prasanna et al., 2007). Prasanna et al., (2007) studied that Endo-PG act randomly in pectin de-polymerization and exo-PG releases galacturonic acid by catalysing the glycosidic bonds hydrolysis from the non-reducing end of the pectic substances. It is recognized that middle lamella dissolution in the course of fruit ripening were done by PG. PL undergoes mechanism of ÃŽ ²-elimination of the glycosidic bonds (Prasanna et al., 2007). They also indicated that PL acts an endo-enzyme which acts randomly during cleavage of esterified galacturonate units. PL was known to act at methyl-ester bonds leading to beta-elimination of glycosidic bonds by formation of double bonds in galacturonic acids (Rodriguez and Restrepo, 2011). Rodriguez and Restrepo (2011) specified that pectin lyase (PL) enzyme were responsible for cell wall degradation resulting in softening of banana and strawberries. The changes in pectin due to these enzymes action were as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4: Action of Pectolytic enzymes on pectin (Prasanna et al., 2007) 2.1. Role of pectic enzymes in softening during ripening in different fruit varieties Pectic enzymes play an important role in ripening of fruit by degradation of pectic substances found in fruits. Several researches were conducted in different fruit varieties and in their respective juices to understand the role of pectic enzymes in softening of fruit tissues and their intended use in preparation of fruit juices to enhance mashing of fruits, for clarification of fruit juices and also to increase the release of flavours from fruits (Whitaker, 1984). Invitro-studies of some selected fruits and their pectic enzymic activity is discussed. Besford and Hobson (1972) studied the pectic enzyme activity in tomato fruit and concluded that action of PG/ PME or transelimination by pectic transeliminase were not responsible for tomato ripening. Almedia and Huber (2008) have indicated that softening of tomato fruit during ripening were not associated with the PG activity eventhough they remained active in ripened fruit. Enzymic activities of other fruits are studied comparing with tomato as model fruit (Ali et al., 2004). Pires and Finardi-Filho (2005) have extracted PE and PG from Peruvian carrots to understand the pectic enzyme activities in carrot and found that pectinases along with amylases would act together to bring about spoilage in tubers. Owino et al., (2004) have studied about the alterations in fig fruits during ripening due to changes in cell-wall polysaccharides. They have concluded that qualitative differences in both receptacle and drupelets were observed in pectic polymers compared to the hemi-cellulosic substances. This indicates that ripening of fig is associated with modifications in pectin. Several studies were done to understand ripening of strawberries genetically as it softens rapidly (Pombo et al., 2009; Bustamante et al., 2006). It was observed that cell wall degradation were due to pectin dissoloution by pectic enzyme activities in strawberries which enters ripening phase quicker overlapping with the senescence. Manrique and Lajolo (2004) discussed about the cell-wall modifications in papaya fruit during postharvest ripening. They found that several enzymic actions are involved in papaya fruit during the entire period. There were notable changes in pectic polymers during papaya ripening which were mainly due to PG activity and probably due to PME as there were charge density modifications in polymers (Manrique and Lajolo, 2004). Avocado fruit undergoes pectin depolymerisation in contrast to other fruits and it was observed that it was the only fruit in which huge amounts of pectin were readily solubilizing under milder conditions (Pesis et al., 1978; Huber at al., 2001). In case of apples, exo-PG, PME and PL activity were observed to cause changes in cell wall polysaccharides (Goulao et al., 2007; Oritz et al., 2011). Studies related to cell wall modification during ripening of apples reveals that exo-PG, PME and PL activity influences softening of apples (Goulao et al., 2007). Studies by Gw anpua et al., (2014) in jonagold apples have shown that increment of PG activity occurred late during ripening and PME activity did not influence the ripening process. Cheng et al., (2011) observed that banana fruit which enters softening during ripening were associated with pectic hydrolytic activity and it was mainly due to the combined effects of PG and PME activity. Abu-Goukh and Bashir (2003) have observed that softening of guava fruit and mango were mainly due to PG and cellulose activity during ripening which resulted in drop in firmness of the fruits. Similarly in case of peaches, softening is due to depolymerisation of pectin by endo-PG activity resulting in solubilization of cell-wall polymers (Yoshioka et al., 2011). 3. CONCLUSION Pectin polymers form a gel-like matrix which provides cell-wall integrity contributing to the firmness of fruits. It stabilizes the texture and colour of the fruit based on which freshness of fruits is determined. Commercial value of fruits is based on these quality attributes. Several researches conducted on different types of fruits indicate that pectic enzymes have an important role in softening of fruit tissues during ripening. They were known to cause pectin solubilization in cell-wall matrices by different modes of action like lysis, de-esterification and glycanase activity. Research studies conducted on selected types of fruits under in-vitro conditions indicated that Polygalacturonase activity is predominant in almost all-types of fruits compare to pectin methyl-esterase and Pectic-lyase activities. Pectic enzymes were not the only factor for softening of fruits during ripening as it is influenced by several other factors like changes in pH, temperature, harvesting period, st orage conditions, physical damage, microbial attack, presence of sugars, other hydrolytic, kinetic and amylase enzymes and so on. Better understanding of mechanism of pectic enzymes on primary cell-walls of fruits would enhance the control of softening and ripening process. This in turn, will improve the quality of fruits extending its shelf-life. Recent advancements favoured the isolation of pectic enzymes commercially which is used intentionally for accelerating the maturation of fruits, added in production of fruit juices to easily crush the fruits, to solubilize the complex cell-wall matrices, to release all nutrients, to control haze formation in juices, to enhance flavour and colour characteristics of fruit juices, and so on. Recent developments in molecular biology have paved a way for genetically understanding the pectic enzyme action on primary cell-walls in fruits. Henceforth, pectic enzymes play a determining role in softening associated with ripening of fruits.

History Of Skills Demonstrations Children And Young People Essay

History Of Skills Demonstrations Children And Young People Essay There have been many theorists which have influenced todays early childhood education. From as early as 1698 with John Comenius to the most mentioned Jean Piaget in the 1920s? John Comenius was one of the first producers of the childrens picture books. Comenius paved the way for subsequent development in education. His understanding of learning through the senses and of the holistic nature of learning remains the cornerstone of educational theories today. Friedrich Froebel also believed that teachers should not teach by rote but should encourage self-expression through play. He believed that the education of young children was a vital part of their development as individuals. Froebel was the 1st theorist to articulate a theory on how children learn and gave detailed instruction for putting this theory into practice. This was the first teacher training programmer for young children. Rudolf Steiners theory is centered on all aspects of growth and development, which included spirituality. He wanted to create an education which gave children a balanced experience. The teachers attempts to engage the childs whole being in what they do, in as an artistic way as possible, by providing a warm and joyful environment in which the child can feel nurtured and at east, happy to explore and play, be busy and be still. The room is painted and in a warm colour has few hard rectangular corners, and is often furnished with soft muslins to mark off a different area or draped over a window to give a softer quality of light. The quality of sound is that of human voices rather than of mechanical toys. The materials in the room are natural and are at childrens level and are stored in aesthetic containers such as simple baskets or wooden boxes which may themselves be incorporated into the play (Drummond, MJ. Lally M. And Pugh, G. (EDS) (1989) Page 59) (Working with Children: Developin g a Curriculum for Early Years). This theory and concept of teaching has influenced many types of early learning frameworks and curriculums. But his belief in the non-introduction of print to children prior to the age of 7 years remains a controversial part of his theory. As we are aware today, young children have a huge understanding of print, not just from books but from their environment. Maria Montessori was one of the most influential theorists. Her aims were to harness childrens natural ability to learn and then offer defined experiences and materials to explain abstract principles. She wrote the child can only be free when the adult becomes an acute observer. Any action of the adult that is not a response to the childrens observed behaviour limits the childs freedom (cited by MacNaughton in Shaping Early Childhood) (Open University Press, 2003). She developed a range of equipment and materials to help develop the childrens daily living skills such as number concepts, language development, education of senses and exploration and science. Today these methods are still widely used and have been some of the most popular methods of early childhood education in the modern day. Jean Piagets theories dominated developmental psychology in the 1960s and 70s. Like Sigmund Freud, Piaget identified stages of development but while Freud concentrated on the emotional and sexual development, Piaget focused on intellectual development. He identified these 4 stages as Stage 1: Sensorimotor, which was between the ages of 0 2 years. Stage 2: Preoperational, came from the age of 2 to 6/7 years. Stage 3: Concrete Operational, identified itself at age 7 years to 11 years. The final stage, Stage 4: Formal Operations, begins at the age of 12 and continues through into adulthood. His theories were covered during teacher training and influenced the education of young children during the 1970s. Today his theories are still taught but as part of a range of theories. He was created a sense of curiosity about how children learn but his emphasis on logic mathematical thinking resulted in his experiments being over-generalised from a narrow range of subjects. His theories were most influential to the modern curriculum of Highscope. ACTIVITY 1 A Using Highscope within the creche, I can identify many features from Steiner, McMillan, Froebel, Piaget and Melanie Klein. Froebel theorised about the importance of outdoor experience. In our creche we ensure that all the children get outside to play every day. This is an important part of the daily routine, Froebel emphasised nature walks and gardening. The creche has limited outdoor space and the children have plenty to play with, which encourages their gross motor skills. Because of the safety flooring, we have little aspects of gardening outdoors. Melanie Klein believed that children use play to express and show their experiences. This is emphasised within the creche as the majority of the childrens learning/teaching is play-based and to manage challenging behaviour, we re-enact situations through play scenarios, i.e. puppets or stories. But we do not single children out, only observe them in group situations. BC Rudolf Steiners theory concentrates on the child as a whole, balancing the childrens experiences. I can see through observations and toy selection that this is the thesis of our creche. As a supervisor, I see every child as unique. They may go through particular stage but not always at the same time! Each child needs to have positive and constructive experiences which develop their mind, emotions and will. We allow the children freedom of choice and support needed to help them make those choices. With group-time we give them the freedom to speak which builds self-worth and their listening skills. We encourage them to problem-solve which builds their confidence and teaches them patience and respect. But unlike Steiners belief in not introducing them to the printed word, we show the books and flash cards from the babyroom up! McMillan brought the importance of hygiene and nutrition to the forefront. Within the creche we encourage the children to be aware of self-care. Through role-play and story time, we show the children the importance of cleaning hands and face, of brushing their teeth and self-grooming. This is also taught to them through example (staff washing hands regularly, etc.). The creche has a daily well balanced and nutritious menu for the children. We liaise with parents to show them the importance of well balanced meals. Maria Montessori had many contributions to creche curriculum but the one I see regularly in our creche is her theory and observations. The creche revolves around observing the children and planning their routines around that. Adults need to see what the children are interested in and how to enhance that so that their experience is full! Also when observing the children staff can see problems or issues which arise through play situations, i.e. social issues, developmental delays or problems. But we do not use any of the Montessori equipment as we use as much natural material as possible. D Although I can see concept from each theorist, I feel that Steiner/Piaget theories would be the most influential with the creche. Steiners theory about development of the child as a whole person is strong and his emphasis on the importance of play and imitation play a large part in the creche. Piagets theories of development were very influential to the Highscope approach which is used throughout the creche. PART 2 Children love to play! It is an important part of their development. Play offers children the chance to be in control and to feel both confident and competent within relevant and open-ended experiences which are meaningful to them. It helps children make sense of the world around them. Children gain an understanding of their emotions. When children play it involves the exploration of ideas, feelings, relationships, materials and their environment. Play encourages creativity and imagination, and offers the children a chance to explore at their own pace and developmental stage without restriction or expectations. There are different types of play which can overlap and lead into each other. These are symbolic play: The child can use this type of play to reinforce, learn about and imaginatively alter painful experiences. Children mimic parents or pretend to be heroes theyve seen on T.V. or read in a book. This type of play helps children cope with fears. Expressive play: This gives children opportunities to express their feelings by using many different types of materials. Physical play: This has a large social aspect to it because it generally involves other children and it provides exercise which is essential for normal development. Dramatic play: This can be spontaneous or adult-guided. The children act out situations which they feel may happen or are fearful of or may have witnessed. Manipulative play: This starts in infancy. Children control and manipulate their environment and people around them. Children manipulate and move objects to better understand how they work. Familiarisation play: This is when children handle materials and explore experiences in an enjoyable way. Surrogate play: This is when an incapacitated child watches and enjoys through other children or adults. Therapeutic play: This is guided play used by professionals to help children understand their feelings and show them through play. There are three main stages of play which are: (0 2 years) Solitary Play where a child plays alone to explore. (2 3 years) Parallel Play where a child will play alongside other children but not join in. (3-5 years) Sharing Play where children co-operate and use conversation when playing games. This also involves children taking turns and using imagination. Our role as Early Years workers is to facilitate and support each child in play. Through observing practitioners can plan for play. Planning a daily routine and planning the environment around the childs play is important as through planned play a practitioner can best support the children. No matter the age group of the children they need adult support during play. By talking to the children about their play, recognising and supporting their choice of play (without interference) gives children a sense of competence and self-worth. Only participate in childrens play when invited or if you can help them develop the skills of playing. Practitioner can also support by acting as mediator teaching children skills such as problem solving and to be respectful of others feelings. Practitioners knowledge of equality and diversity will protect children from harm in play intervening in satiations that could be potentially harmful for children. Further to practitioners planning and supporting them also need to review play. Observing the children during play can show how the equipment materials and the environment is supporting or maybe hindering the childrens abilities to continue or to progress in the play. Children today are growing up in a society where they are over-protected and parents are fearful of allowing them to play outside and explore houses are made so safe that children are stifled in their development. Things that we did to have fun and play developed our gross motor skills. We problem solved situations so as to stay out longer but today children have a lot of house based games such as PlayStation, etc., which are generally play solely and are intellectually based. I think children coming to an Early Years setting enjoy playing. Having materials and space which is suited and facilitates their interests, means they can express themselves freely and helps them explore and understand the ever changing world around them. As Froebels theory highlighted, children should be allowed to be children and enjoy the things that children enjoy. 1) What is the current framework available in Ireland? Siolta and Aistear are the most recent frameworks developed by the Centre for Early Childhood Development and Education (CECDE). Now the responsibility of Sioltas implementation lies with the Department of Education and Science. Aistear is the Early Childhood Curriculum Framework. 2) What will the Framework for Early Learning do? Siolta focuses on all areas of quality within ECCE settings for children aged from birth to six years old. Aistear plays its part in giving children opportunities to learn based on their interests, strengths, culture and specific needs. 3) Who will the Framework be for? The framework covers children from birth to six years old. This includes all Early Years settings, childrens own homes and infant classes in primary school. 4) How does the Framework consider the children? Our society today has become more diverse. In allowing the children to learn to their abilities. It will give them quality interactions with other children and an enriched environment that encourages play indoors and outdoors, adult/child interactions, exploration, conversation and observation. 5) What themes are included in the Framework? a) Well-being b) Communication c) Exploration and thinking d) Identity and belonging 6) What are Siolta and Aistear? 7) How can you as an Early Childhood Supervisor promote a quality Framework in your service? Introducing the National Framework to the service involves educating both the staff and the parents. Training the staff and supporting them as a supervisor with the transition is very important. Aistear will broaden the range of strategies the staff will have for interacting with the children. Introducing new assessments and methods which will progress the childrens learning across the curriculum. The staff must support the children in the learning experiences by observing, listening and interacting, when invited by the child or if intervention is required. The involvement of the parent is essential. To help them understand the benefits to the children of quality play time and helping them understand the limitations paperwork can have with children, as most parents like to see their childrens progress through pictures or writings. The introduction of project books for the children as a group and as individuals is a great way to review activities and allows the children express themselves through pictures and photos. PART 4 Highscope and National Curriculum The curriculum used at my service is Highscope. This was developed by Dr. David Weikart to serve children at risk of failing school. It originated in the USA in 1962 and is now used in many countries around the world. It can be used throughout the childcare setting with children aged from birth to six years. Staff encourages children to become decision makers and problem solvers. This helps them to develop skills that enable them to become successful students as they grow and progress through school. The central principles are given through a Wheel of Learning. At the centre the active learner (the child) and surrounding that the principles that will support the child while learning these are adult/child interaction: learning environment: daily routine and assessment. These give staff and management a base on how to provide an environment and daily routine that will enrich a childs experiences within my service. My vision is to have a quality service that children will run into every morning with smiles on their faces and at the end then to watch them become fully rounded, capable children as they make the transition to national school. I want my staff to enjoy coming to work, feeling satisfied that they have made a difference in each childs life. That they have helped each child reach their full potential and have positive experiences in the setting. I want parents to feel secure in entrusting their children to my service, that they know that their children will be nurtured and encouraged positively during every step of the day. They feel still included in every part of their childrens day, even while they are away from them. I feel that the new National Framework can slot in easily to a service that is High scope-based, as there are a lot of similarities. Aistear curriculum can be used during a Highscope daily routing as both are play-based, learning and emphasise the value of observations to plan routines and activities. Because of this, I feel the transition to national school should be smooth. The children have built up the abilities to problem solve and make decision and choices for themselves. This builds confidence both socially and academically. I feel the largest problem for children when progressing initially to national school is more social than academic and if a child is confident, self-aware and happy in themselves, the transition can bring more positive experiences than negative which sets a good base for a child to progress successfully as a student.

Discovering Communities on the Internet :: Computers Technology Papers

"Discovering Communities on the Internet" Section I Online Communities Online communities seem to be very popular these days. I feel there is two different types of online communities. One type is where people converse during real time, meaning an individual could typically ask a question and will receive an immediate response from someone else. The immediate responses result in a dialogue between two or more people. Bulletin Boards are also popular because they are similar to an online community. The bulletin boards allow people to share ideas. To my understanding, the main difference between the two is that someone posts an idea on the board, and another person responds to the inquiry or statement by posting his response. Both of these places allow people to have discussions of all kinds and for a variety of reasons. Some people may think that an online community is where they met their significant others. Other people think an online community allows them to find the house or car of his dream. Also, people will ask for advice or ideas about something that is going on in life. There are advantages and disadvantages in chatting with communities. Some of the advantages are as follows: people are connected with the world and the diversity of people; people are able to find out other people's interests and ideas; people can learn about a different person's perspective. Some disadvantages in chatting with communities are as follows: people can learn how scary and different people really are; people can lie to you with out you even knowing the truth. I have had personal experience with chat communities and I have found great success. I have used chat communities for educational purposes. When I have chatted with communities I felt at ease. For example instead of having a class discussion I chatted with my classmates online. This way of discussing ideas was neat, because at first I did not know who I was talking to, then eventually I did figure out who I was chatting with. Another reason why I have enjoyed chat room discussions versus in class discussions is because people had the opportunity to speak their minds over the computer and they were not hesitant or shy. People did not have to face humiliation from the teacher or other classmates by their vocal answer. Chat rooms allow everyone to be able to participate and get involved in the class.

Ophelias Weakness Essay -- essays research papers

In classic works of literature, all characters have certain flaws, and Shakespeare’s tragedies’ characters in particular have faults that ultimately lead to their ruination. In Hamlet, Ophelia’s flaws eventually kill her. In the beginning of the play, it is clear through her thoughts and actions that that Ophelia is an obedient person. But upon closer inspection, the audience can see that she is not merely an obedient, but completely dependent and weak character. In fact, her needy nature is unmistakable from the beginning. OPH: â€Å"I do not know, my lord, what I should think.† POL: â€Å"Marry, I will teach you. Think yourself a baby†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Act I, Scene III, lines 105-106) Her cruel clashings with Hamlet, which go against her feelings for him, demonstrate her absolute obedience to her father. For example, from the start Ophelia told her father that she is fond of Hamlet: â€Å"My lord, he hath importuned me with love / In honorable fashion.† (Act I, Scene IV, lines 111-112) In relating this to Polonius, she implies that Hamlet is a decent and honorable man, and that she does have feelings for him. Ophelia’s later actions sacrifice these personal feelings by order of he r father, proving her total submission to his authority. Ophelia specifically agrees with her father not to see Hamlet again: â€Å"I shall obey, my lord†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Act I, Scene IV, line 136) This shows that Polonius has complete control over his daughter, with her desire to please her father as the direct cause. Ophelia has an innate desi...

Cinchona and its Product--Quinine Essay -- Botany

Cinchona and its Product--Quinine The bark of cinchona produces several alkaloids. The most important alkaloid, quinine, has certain febrifuge properties. Quinine was used in the battle against malaria since the 1630's. Of 38 species of cinchona, four species have economic value for the production of quinine: C. calisaya, C. legeriana, C. officianalis and C. succirubra. Cinchona, of the family Rubiaceae, is native to the South American Andes. It thrives best on steep mountain slopes in rich volcanic soils and an annual rainfall of 1,500 cm.(9) The cinchonas flower in 3-4 years. The flowers form small fragrant yellow, white or pink clusters at the end of branches, and are similar to lilacs. The fruits are 1-3 cm oblong capsules with numerous small, flat, winged seeds. The bark of wild species may yield a quinine content of as high as 7%, whereas cultivated crops yield contents up to 15%.(l) HISTORY Malaria has been credited to bringing down whole civilizations. Alexander the Great, in 323 B.C., was afflicted with the fevers which rendered him lifeless and crushed his dream of uniting the regions of his world. The fevers, heavy set in Rome, instilled such fear in the Catholic Church that the Vatican fled to Avignon, France for 68 years. Commoners with malaria were left too listless to work. Field hands and farmers neglected the crops. The fevers may well have been a hindrance to the progress of agriculture. Consequently the search for a cure was intense. Countless theories on causes were put forth. Cures ranged from logical to the ridiculous. Physicians mixed herbs for medicine. Some bled patients to achieve a balance of blood and bile. One physician, determining the blood was bad, tied off the arteries of the pat... ...nt Science-An Introduction to World Crops, Ad Ed. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Co., pp 650-652. 5. Lambert, A.B. An Illustration of Cinchona. Louisville: Lost Cause Press, 1980. 6. Markham, C.R. 1862. Travels in Peru and India. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 7. Missouri Botanical Garden. 1930. Proceedings of the Celebration of the Use of Cinchona. St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden. 3. Nichols, H.A. Textbook of Tropical Agriculture. 1911. London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., pp. 221-229. 9. Payne, W.J., Dr. 1980. Tree and Field Crops of the Wetter Regions of the Tropics. London: Longman, pp. 78-79. 10. VonOettingen, W.F., M.D., Ph.D. 1933. The Therapeutic Agents of the Quinoline Group. New York: The Chemical Catalogue Co., Inc. 11. World Health Organization. 1979. World Health Statistics Annual. Geneveve:

Iron Jawed Angels Toulmin

Of the many distinct qualities a person may hold, Leadership has become one of the greatest. A leader is someone recognized because of their undying courage, strength, and passion as well as many other notable qualities. Grounds: A leader is someone who stands out from the crowd and takes charge to accomplish a task or goal. For example, in the movie, Iron Jawed Angels, Alice Paul showed great leadership in her fight for woman's suffrage. She not only went against the odds but she also took command by starting the WON, separating herself from NASA.Alice Paul showed strength and courage as she picketed in front of the White House as well as starving herself in prison, starting a hunger strike. Another prime example of leadership is Lucy Burns, who was a visionary that took action in fighting for woman's rights alongside Alice. After being thrown into a woman's prison, Burns demands the warden respect their rights, only to be cuffed with her arms above her cell door. Alice and Lucy ser ved as examples for the others through their passion and conviction.The rebellious spirit of the two younger activists is in stark contrast to the ore conservative older women. They had no vote, no political clout, no equal rights. But what they lacked under the law they made up for with brains, determination and courage. Warrants: After series of events that pushed the woman suffragists down, they came back harder and stronger with more force and even more determination. Their roles as leaders grew the more they struggled. The woman's goal to earn their right to vote was a battle that challenged not only their inner capabilities but also the success of the WON.They were brave in spite of danger, they showed wisdom in their political debates, and they gave hope to all women who were treated unequal. Their reputation followed them as their responsibility as leaders and example to others grew. Backing: During the time of war, the women saw it as an opportunity to keep fighting for the ir rights. They would not let their fight for suffrage fade as did during the Civil War. The women fought Woodrow Wilson to support the suffrage movement as well as fought Congress using the media to gain support.From hanging banners during ingression's meetings to marching the streets in Washington, Alice and Lucy held their heads high in spite of their oppressors. Their influence grew as their fight for their rights became a national conflict sweeping across America. Emily Leighton became another powerful leader who was heavily influenced by the woman suffragists. From helping fund the WON to walking out on her Democratic husband, Emily became a major figure in the suffragist's movement as well as an inspiration to all ladies. Suffragists' movement. Carrie Chapman Cast of the NASA was only a leader by title, to by her actions.She took a more passive approach to fighting for woman's rights that preferred a state-by-state approach rather than passing a constitutional amendment. Her differences with the younger activists caused conflict with the NP by closing the D. C. Committee along with accusation of using party expenditures. Cast discouraged the younger activists ways of gaining political attention along with their separation of NASA into a new woman's suffragists party. Her role as a leader was only a reflection of her power in NASA unlike the young activists who fought with earth.Qualifier: Throughout history, leaders emerge when a battle is at hand. No one can proclaim himself or herself a leader. They are born into this world, with a purpose, and a cause. They show great qualities which gives others strength. They influence those around them and give hope when there is none to be found. A leader will march first into battle but will be the last one to leave. Their inspiration and courage motivates others to fight the common cause and to never give up. Alice Paul is one of the many great leaders that will be recognized in history forever.

Ethical and Legal Issue Essay

How personal and societal values can influence ethical decision- making process when nurses are faced with ethical issues, nursing has long advocated a nonjudgmental approach to care. Nurses need to able to apply ethical principle in decision- making and consider their own values and belief and the values and belief of the client. As nurses we have the responsibility to protect the right of the client by acting as client advocate. According with Blais, Hayes, Kozier and Erb (2006) values are freely chosen, enduring belief or attitudes about the worth of a person, object, idea, or action. Freedom, courage, family, and dignity are example of values. Blais it al (2006) stated that values frequently derive from a person’s cultural, ethic, and religious background; from societal tradition; and from the values held by peer group and family. In the malpractice case, she faced with an ethical-legal conflict; ethical and legal conflicts are not synonymous. There are times in professional practice when the legal requirement does not appear compatible with ethical approach. Nurses may place themselves in legal jeopardy when they opt for what they see as the ethical or â€Å"right† thing to do, in spite of what is inherent in the law as that apply. In this case the nurse has acted as a client advocate and notify to the admintration about the situation she was witnessed. She may be was influenced by societal values, of human life and individual right. In Marianne case we as nurse have to respect family decision but at the same time patient values by been advocate by remind them to keep in mind what would has Marianne wishes.

Doctor in the house Essay

Under our study the passage of the story ‘Doctor in the house’ written by a famous British writer and an assistant editor of the British Medical Journal of the 20 th century Richard Gordon who worked also as a ship’s surgeon, but left his medical practice in 1952. The story ‘Doctor in the house’ is one of Gordon’s twelve ‘Doctor’ books and is noted for witty description of a medical student’s years of professional training. ‘Doctor in the house’ is not really intriguing title for the story, but, perhaps, this simplicity makes this story so attractive for an experienced reader, who is able after looking through passages to find extremely interesting phrases, word combinations, unusual style of writing and etc. Speaking about the style of the story we can say that it is autobiography. The plot of the passage is build round ‘an unpleasant inevitability’, we mean the final examination of medical students. At the beginning we dive in the meaning of the final examination in medical universities. Here we meet the main character who is the young author at the same time. Trying to pass his exams the author managed to pass his true emotions and feelings before, during and after exams. What is more, Gordon gives us a brilliant systematic structure of the social types of people using a little bit irony. Well, when young Richard knew his results, the whole world stood still round him and everything was calm. We see so-called ‘Happy End’ of the passage. In my opinion, in these pages we see a conflict which can be described as the conflict between man and fate. The person who saw many examples during the examinations different styles of behavior, and he was getting nervous about failing his chance. Even his friends told him that ‘One doesn’t fail exams. One comes down, one muffs, one is ploughed, plucked or pipped. These infer a misfortune that is not one’s own fault. To speak of failing is bad taste. It’s the same idea as talking about passing away and going above instead of plain dying. ‘ The general atmosphere of the extract is ironic. We can see it from the first sentence of the passage in a phrase ‘ an unpleasant inevitability to be faced sooner or later’. During the text we see a lot of examples of the irony such as the description of the visiters in the waiting-room, the process of passing exam in Cambridge and some others. This stylistic device was used by Gordon to make his story lighter and funnier for the reader and, perhaps, future and still students of the medical examinations, and maybe not only for them but for all students who prepare themselves to any exam. May be in such case Richard Gordon wanted to attract our attention to the fact that we should enjoy with the process of studying and getting edication, and even exams which are very remarkable event for us every session&&&. Defining the style of the abstract we can say that it is bright example of science fiction. Observing the author’s vocabulary I can say it is very simple. The vocabulary is full of colloquial words, but at the same time he used special terms, in my opinion it is used to show that as the narrator is medical student, of course, he knew the medicine terms. What makes the author’s language interesting there is a great number of epithets ( an unpleasant inevitability, fragrant cheating, frustrated brilliance, imminent thunderstorm and others), simily ( exam like death, porters were like the policemen that flank the dock at the Old Bailey, candidate will come to the end of his interrogation struggling like a cow in a bog), metaphors ( feeling if I had just finished an eight-round fight, Speaking about syntax I can say that it is quite varied from very simple sentences which are refer to very difficult sentences which transfer all features of oral communication (‘I started off confidentially, reeling out the lines of treatment and feeling much better’). To sum up I want to say that I really like this story because a lot of ideas to think. The lesson from this passage is that you can get everything if you try hard, and you should always believe in good, but to be prepared to the worst, as Russsian proverb said.

Progress of Malaysian Women

The Progress of Malaysian Women Since Independence 1957 – 2000 Published by: Ministry of Women and Family Development Level 1-4, Block E Bukit Perdana Government Office Complex Jalan Dato’ Onn 50515 Kuala Lumpur Tel:03-29630095 Fax:03-26938498 E-mail:[email  protected] gov. my Website:www. kpwk. gov. my With funding support from: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei Darussalam Published September 2003 ISBN:983-41432-0-6 Printed by: Bar Code Design Network Copyright  © 2003 Ministry of Women and Family Development.All Right Reser ved. Request for permission to reprint any material should be directed to the Ministry of Women and Family Development. CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY FOREWORD CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY III. METHODOLOGY IV. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT V. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING VI ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN VII. LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN – Wome n under the Federal Constitution – Employment Legislation and Women – Other Laws Affecting the Status of Women VIII.CONCLUSION CHAPTER 2 – EDUCATION AND TRAINING OF WOMEN I. INTRODUCTION II. FORMAL EDUCATION – Enrolment in Primary and Secondary Schools – Female Enrolment in Technical and Vocational Education – Tertiary Education – Education Attainment of Rural Women – International Comparison in Educational Attainment III. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING IV. FUTURE CHALLENGES V. RECOMMENDATIONS VI. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 3 – WOMEN AND THE ECONOMY I. INTRODUCTION II.TRENDS IN WOMEN'S ECONOMIC PARTICIPATION – Women in the Labour Force – Employment Status of Women – Employment by Sector – Employment by Occupational Category – Potential Growth Areas: Women in Business and Professional Services Page vii x 14 14 16 17 18 19 23 26 26 27 28 30 33 33 33 34 37 39 42 42 43 47 50 51 53 53 54 54 55 56 61 64 The Progress of Women Since Independence III. IV. V. – Women Entrepreneurs: From Micro-Enterprises to Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION 5 67 70 72 73 73 74 74 74 76 78 79 79 80 80 82 82 83 84 86 87 89 90 CHAPTER 4 – WOMEN AND HEALTH I. INTRODUCTION II. GENERAL HEALTH STATUS – Indicators of Health Status – Maternal Mortality – Nutritional Status of Women – Fertility Trends III. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH SERVICES – Family Planning – Antenatal and Postpartum Care – Management of Cervical and Breast Cancers IV. HEALTH CONCERNS IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM – Health Needs of Older Women – Domestic Violence – Mental Health – The HIV/AIDS Epidemic V. FUTURE CHALLENGES VI.RECOMMENDATIONS VII. CONCLUSION CHAPTER 5 – WOMEN IN DECISION MAKING AND POWER SHARING 93 I. INTRODUCTION 93 II. TRENDS IN LEADERSHIP AND POWER SHARING 94 – Political Membership a nd Leadership 94 – Political Candidacy 96 – Elected Offices and Appointments 97 – Representation in the State Assemblies 99 – Share of Leadership and Decision-Making Positions in the Public Sector 99 – Key Management Positions in the Public Sec tor 99 – Appointments in the Foreign Service 101 – Representation in Local Authorities 101 – The Grassroots Level 103III. IV. V. – Management Positions in the Private Sector – Non-Government Organizations (NGO), Trade Unions and Cooperatives – Participation in NGOs – Participation in Trade Unions – Representation in Cooperatives FUTURE CHALLENGES RECOMMENDATIONS CONCLUSION 104 105 105 106 108 108 111 112 115 REFERENCES LISTS OF BOXES Box 1. 1 1. 2 1. 3 2. 1 3. 1 Titles Page Malaysia’s First Lady, Dato’ Seri Dr. Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd.Ali – An Inspiring Role Model for Malaysian Women 12 Definition of Discrimination 30 Selected Relevant Declarations and Action Plans Signed by the Government of Malaysia 31 Scaling Up Micro-Enterprises, Department of Agriculture 46 Datuk Muhaiyani Shamsuddin, Founder and Managing Director of Muhaiyani Securities Sdn Bhd and Deputy Chairperson of the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange 66 Dato’ Sharizat Abdul Jalil – An Advocate and Solicitor, an Eminent Corporate Figure and a Cabinet Minister 91 Tan Sri Datuk Nuraizah Abdul Hamid – A Woman of Distinction in the Public Service 113 . 1 5. 2 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1 2. 2 2. 3 Title Page Primary School Enrolment by Sex, Malaysia,1957–2000 34 Secondary School Enrolment by S ex, Malaysia,1957–2000 35 Percentage of Males and Females in Primary and Secondary Schools, Malaysia,1957–2000 36 2. 4 2. 5 2. 6 2. 7 2. 8 2. 9 2. 10 2. 11 2. 12 2. 13 3. 1 4. 1 4. 2 4. 3 4. 4 4. 5 4. 6 5. 1 5. 2Number of Students Enrolled in Year Six to Form Five by Sex,1991–1995 Enrolment in Vocational and Technical School s by Sex, Malaysia,1957–2000 Proportion of Female: Male Students in Vocational and Technical Schools, Malaysia 1957–2000 Enrolment in Tertiary Institutions by Sex, Malaysia, 1957–2000 Proportion of Males and Females in Tertiary Education, Malaysia,1959–2000 Enrolment in Engineering Course, Malaysia,1991–1998 Output of Graduates in Engineering, Malaysia,l991–1998 Educational Attainment of Women by Stratum, Malaysia, 1970,1980 and 1991 Number of Students in Adult Education Classes by Sex, Malaysia,1958–1967 Literacy Rate by Sex, Malaysia,1970–2010 Percentage Distribution of Employed Persons by Occupation and Gender, Malaysia,1957–2000 Maternal Mortality per 1,000 Live Births. 1956–2000 Life Expectancy at Birth in Malaysia by Sex,1957–2000 Number of Pap Smears Read by the Ministry of Health, 1982–1998 Number of Reported Cases of Domestic Violence, 1984–1997 Number of Suicide and Self-inflic ted I njury Cases in Malaysia by Sex Number of Women Living with HIV and AIDS,and Deaths in Women from HIV/AIDS Percentage of Women in Elected Offices/Appointed Offices, Malaysia,1959–2001 Women in Top Management in the Malaysian Foreign Service 1992,1994 and 1999 7 37 38 39 40 41 41 42 43 44 63 75 76 81 84 85 86 98 101 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i. Efforts to forge greater gender equality have resulted in Malaysian women achieving significant progress in key socio-economic areas since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. However, despite the progress made, new concerns on the role and status of women have emerged that could adversely affect the participation of women in the economy and social spheres. In light of this, the Government of Malaysia, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) jointly undertook a study to document and evaluate the progress of women in Malaysia during the period 1957–2000.This study is intended to captu re the achievements of women in education,health,economy, politics and power sharing, and decision making. Secondary data from the Department of Statistics surveys and administrative records from government agencies and nongovernmental organisations are used for the study. The report for the study contains five chapters, with chapters 2 to 5 assessing the progress of women in specific key areas while chapter 1 highlights the Government’s initiatives taken to advance women in development. Development planning for the advancement of women was introduced in the Sixth Malaysia Plan, which has a chapter on the development of women.The Sixth Plan and subsequent plans contain strategies to incorporate women in the process of development in line with the objectives of the National Vision Policy on Women (NPW). Equitable sharing of resources and access to opportunities for men and women forms one of the objectives of the NPW. The formulation and implementation of an action plan to ope rationalise the NPW during the Seventh Malaysia Plan resulted in the implementation of more coherent and focused programmes to integrate women in development and elevate their status. Significant progress has also been made in the setting up of the required institutional and administrative machinery to plan, coordinate, implement and monitor the development of women. These include the Ministry of Women and Family Development, the Department ii. iii. vii f Women Affairs (HAWA), the National Advisory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) and the National Council of Women’s Organisations (NCWO). In addition, the enactment of new laws and the continuous review and amendment of existing legislation have been undertaken to preserve, reinforce and protect the rights and legal status of women. iv. Malaysian women have benefited from increased access to education and training as indicated by the improvement in their literacy rates and net enrolment at all level s of education since 1957. The enrolment of female students at the primary level increased by more than three and a half times during the period 1957–2000.At the secondary level, the enrolment of female students increased by more than 36 times to reach a total enrolment of 985,692 students in 2000. With regard to enrolment in technical and vocational schools the percentage of male students has always been higher than female students. The enrolment of Malaysian women in tertiary institutions reflected the evolution of tertiary education in Malaysia, which has been gradually expanding in total number and relative terms, especially after 1970. In 1959, female undergraduates comprised 10. 7 per cent of the total student enrolment in the University of Malaya, but increased to 51. 3 per cent of the total enrolment in local universities by 2000.Non-formal educ ation in the form of adult education, home economics and entrepreneurial training programmes has improved the literacy rates of rural women and enabled them to acquire new knowledge and skills. Despite the increasing number of female student enrolment at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, the concentration of female students in non-technical courses is a major area of concern. The participation of women in the labour force has been increasing since 1957,they are engaged in paid employment or are employers, self-employed and unpaid family workers in all economic sectors. Overall, female employment accounted for 34. 7 per cent of total employment in 2000 as compared to only 24. per cent in 1957. An analysis of female employment by occupational category also shows a rising trend of women moving into occupations that require postsecondary education. However, the majority of women are concentrated in low-skilled and low-waged occupations. They are viii v. under- represented in top managerial and decision-making posts in both the public and private sectors. Gender-specific issues that continue to hind er the progress of women in the economy include traditional gender constructs, sex role stereotyping and gender division of work, multiple roles of women, gender segmentation and stratification, and gender discrimination at work.To address these issues, more concrete steps will have to be taken so that women’s involvement in the labour market and corporate world can be more significant and meaningful. vi. Improvement in the health status of Malaysian women in the last four decades has been the key to their well-being and active participation in the economic, political and social development in the country. Efforts in expanding and developing health services targeted at women and the family have been successful in reducing the incidence of deaths arising from communicable and noncommunicable diseases. The average life expectancy of women increased from 58. 2 years in 1957 to 75 years in 2000. The maternal mortality rate, a direct indicator of women’s reproductive health , has declined by tenfold to 0. per 1,000 live births after 43 years of independence. However, new health concerns are emerging and these include the health needs of older women, occurrence of domestic violence, mental disorders and increased incidence of HIV/AIDS cases. Malaysian women’s share in power sharing and decision-making in politics and the economy has been on an upward trend since independence. There has been an incremental increase in women voters, membership in political parties, political candidates, and appointments to elected and appointed offices. However, a gender gap still exists between men and women in terms of access to highlevel positions and participation in decision-making.The number of women holding top management posts in the civil service and corporate sector is still relatively small. Gender barriers leading to the under-representation of women in decision-making and powersharing positions include cultural and institutional factors, gender roles a nd ethnicity, political culture, limited platform for women in political parties, lack of a critical mass, and gender-blind elements in recruitment and promotion. ix vii. Dato’ Seri Shahrizat Abdul Jalil Minister of Women and Family Development Malaysia Since independence,women in Malaysia have actively contributed towards the development of the country. Over the past four decades, we have seen significant improvements in the status of women and in gender equality.The educational attainment of women is at a higher level, their participation in the labour force has increased and legislation that grants equal opportunities for women and respect for their human rights has been adopted in Malaysia. The country now has a growing number of women Ministers and policy makers. This report documents the achievements of women in Malaysia since the country attained independence in 1957 and allow us a look into the past to gain invaluable lessons. I sincerely hope that this report will be an important source of information to everyone who has the interest of Malaysian women in their hearts. The report also takes the opportunity to x honour Malaysian women who were pioneers in their respective fields and achieved success, all in their own terms.The accomplishments of these women will definitely be an inspiration to other women in Malaysia to strive for greater heights. While the progress attained by women in Malaysia is remarkable, there is still room for improvement in certain areas, especially in science and technology. We cannot afford to bask in the successes we have achieved thus far. We must never forget that the gains made to date may be reversed should indifference, complacency or negligence set in. The journey to enhance women's status in Malaysia is a continuing one because we have an important role to play in supporting Vision 2020,that is, the Government's aim for Malaysia to achieve a developed country status by the year 2020.The report would not have co me to fruition without the support and cooperation from individuals and organizations, the public and private sectors, and the non-governmental organisations. Therefore, I would like to extend my sincere appreciation especially to the Economic Planning Unit of the Prime Minister's Department, members of the Steering Committee, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) for the assistance rendered in preparing this report. Thank You. July 2003 xi The Progress of Women Since Independence Box 1. 1: Malaysia’s First Lady, Dato’ Seri Dr Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd. Ali — An Inspiring Role Model for Malaysian Women Dato’ Seri Dr Siti Hasmah bt. Mohd. Ali,wife of the Prime Minister of Malaysia, is a medical doctor.She was the second Malay woman to graduate from the Faculty of Medicine,University of Malaya in Singapore in 1955,and in a way,set the record for women in her time. She attributed her medical achievement to the foresight of her father who encouraged his children to excel in their studies by sending them to the best schools. She was the first woman to be appointed a medical officer in the Maternal and Child Health Department in the state of Kedah, which had a high incidence of poverty in the early days after independence (1950s to 1960s). In 1974,she was the first woman to be appointed as the State Maternal and Child Health Officer. Thereafter, she became aware of the needs of women, the majority of whom were illiterate, suffering from ill health and living in extreme poverty.Due to poor education as well as inadequate infrastructure, including health services, they were resorting to traditional birth attendants. According to her, in the early days, many women died during childbirth from a lack of health services. Stillbirths and infant mortality were common occurrences. Diseases like tuberculosis plagued the people, especially the children. Women were ignorant of the methods of family planning. This prompted her and her husband to pioneer the setting up of the Kedah Family Planning Association, a non-government organisation offering family planning services to women, thus providing them a means to plan their pregnancies.Her efforts in promoting the health of women is evident in several articles she wrote on the socio-economic factors associated with pregnancy and childbearing in Malaysia. She has been accorded academic recognition as reflected by her appointment as the Chancellor of the Multimedia University in 1997 and the honorary doctorates she has received not just from local (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia) but also from foreign universities (Indiana University, USA and University of Victoria, Canada). In 1992, she was chosen as one of the six Core-Group Initiators of First Ladies to champion the economic advancement of rural women,and in 1995, she Continued on next page 12The Progress of Women Since Independence assumed the chairmanship of the Regional Stee ring Committee on the Economic Advancement of Rural and Island Women for the Asia Pacific Region (RSC-AP). In 1996, she took over the helm of the International Steering Committee on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women (ISC) as its president. According to her,just before independence the country was preoccupied with post-war reconstruction and during that time, health status was static. Health services were mainly provided through a limited number of government dispensaries (in urban as well as rural areas). There has been significant progress made in health services after independence.This is reflected in improvements in health statistics and the easy availability of services, even in remote and rural areas. The progress is partly due to the peace that has prevailed since independence which had allowed the Government to channel continuous efforts into development in all fields. Education has been an important contributing factor. She says, â€Å"The woman of today is educated s o that she can be economically independent. She is also healthy and is able to take better care of the family. Social and cultural barriers like marrying young, having big families and having to deal with negative attitudes of men can be overcome when women are educated. On the progress of women,she says,â€Å"Women need to recognise that we have gained so much through the hard work of our predecessors;we need not fight for what we have but they had to fight every inch of the way. Therefore, we must recognise,give credit and be grateful to the men and women who have made it possible. Women must acknowledge that we need to work together with men,and together we will be effective partners in development. † Dato’ Seri Dr Siti Hasmah said that the future challenges for Malaysian women include competition among women, exposure to and keeping abreast with men in the area of information technology (IT),and development of entrepreneurship among women.The concerns for women als o include married women having to cope with their careers and families, coping with children who are better educated than their parents, and the impact of HIV/AIDS on women,children and men. Source: Personal interview, July 2001 13 The Progress of Women Since Independence Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION I. BACKGROUND 1. 01 The role and status of women in Malaysia have undergone a profound change since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. With increased access to education,employment opportunities and changes in the socio-cultural environment, Malaysian women have progressed and participated effectively in all aspects of development of the country. Within a period of 43 years they have made inroads into all areas of development and spheres of life.Particularly encouraging is the progress made by women in many key areas such as education, health, employment, and participation in power-sharing and in the decision-making processes. Changes in the legal and institutional framework have also been made to protect, preserve and safeguard their rights and improve their status. As Malaysia evolves from a subsistence agricultural economy to a knowledgebased economy, women will continue to be a primary force influencing the development of future generations of Malaysians as well as an important economic resource. Changes in the socio-cultural environment, which have helped to shape the profile of Malaysian women today, will continue to impact women in development. 1. 02 The 2000 Population Census indicates that about 49. per cent or 11. 4 million of the total population were women,with 52. 6 per cent in the age group 24 years and below, indicating a young female population. The proportion of the female population has increased slightly compared to 48. 4 per cent in 1957. Women have a longer life expectancy, 75 years compared to 70. 2 years for men in 2000. Due to their longer life span,the proportion of women in the 65 years and above age group has increased from 2. 8 per cent in 1957 to 4. 2 per cent in 2000. The health status of women has also improved since 1957, for example, the maternal mortality rate declined from 2. 81 per 1,000 live births in 1957 to 0. 2 in 2000.With increased access to education and employment opportunities, women are entering the labour market and marrying at a later age. The mean age of the first marriage for men and women has risen since 1957,when the mean age for men was 23. 8 years and 19. 4 years for women. For women, it has risen to 22. 3 years in 1980 and 25. 1 years in 2000. 14 The Progress of Women Since Independence 1. 03 As the country progresses towards achieving greater gender equality, the role of the Government has been supportive, pre-eminent and continuous. In particular, the Government has provided an enabling environment for the advancement of women at both the national and international levels.At the national level, the formulation of the National Policy on Women (NPW) in 1989 marked a turning point, enunciati ng for the first time clear guidelines for the effective participation of women in the country’s development. Thereafter, the five-year national development plans prescribed specific strategies and measures, including the establishment of appropriate mechanisms and institutional framework to progressively assimilate women into the mainstream of social and economic activities. Despite the progress made and new measures introduced, new concerns on the status and position of women as well as old issues continued to prevail during the period 1991–2000.The issues are multifarious: violence against women, poverty amongst female-headed households, the need for childcare facilities and support for working mothers, the â€Å"triple load† or burden that women have to carry; work-and-family conflicts, sexual harassment at the workplace, and the under-representation of women in politics and decision-making positions. According to gender researchers and analysts, the root ca use of these issues is the inability of the Malaysian society at large to understand and handle â€Å"gender problems† . Malaysian society continued to perceive the role, responsibilities and relationship between men and women according to the traditional mindset, based on the traditional family model where a male bread-winner heads the family and the wife is a full-time homemaker. The family structure has changed over time particular in the 1990s.The trend shows an increase of nuclear families with dual income; and the Population Census 2000 indicates that 58 per cent of working women are married. Working single women and working mothers have specific needs which require a different support system. During the same period, global â€Å"gender issues† were also raised, culminating in the Beijing Declaration and Plan of Action, calling on all governments to implement gender sensitivity training that would enable planners to formulate gender-responsive policies and progra mmes. 1. 04 At the international level the Government showed its commitment to promote the development of women by being signatory to several inte rn ational conventions on women, including the Fourth Wo rl d Conference on Women (Beijing, 1995).The Conference identified 12 critical areas of concern for the advancement of women. The areas included poverty, 15 The Progress of Women Since Independence education, health, economy, power sharing and decision-making, and institutional mechanisms. As a follow-up to the Beijing Conference on Women Plus 5 and taking cognisance of the need to have a more comprehensive and integrated database of information on Malaysian women, the Government of Malaysia in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) undertook this study to document and evaluate the progress of women in Malaysia covering the period 1957–2000.II. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. 05 The main purpose of the stud y is to chronicle the progress made by women in Malaysia, with special focus on four key areas: health, education and training, employment, power-sharing and political involvement. The study covers the period 1957–2000. The benchmark for measuring women’s progress is gender equality, which is the extent and depth of progress made by women in relation to that achieved by Malaysian men. The study will demonstrate the linkages between national policy initiatives and the advancement of women as well as identify future challenges. Specifically, the study will undertake the following: †¢ †¢ rovide an overview of the progress of women in Malaysia since independence; document the progress made in selected key areas, namely, education, health, employment, politics and power-sharing through basic indicators of quality of life such as access to education,health facilities and economic opportunities; review and analyse the integration of women in the nation’s deve lopment in terms of policy thrusts, key programmes/projects and activities as well as institutional support;and capture the achievements of women in Malaysia in other areas such as economics, politics, social development and law; and wherever applicable, singling out prominent women with outstanding achievements and contributions. †¢ †¢ 16 The Progress of Women Since Independence III. METHODOLOGY 1. 06 This study relies heavily on secondary data from existing government statistics – census data,labour force sur veys, vital statistics of the country – and departmental records from government agencies and ministries, non-governmental organisations and research institutions. These information sources provided women-specific data as well as genderdisaggregated data for the construction of key indicators for the period 1957–2000.Key indicators were compiled for the status of women’s health, access to education and training, and employment, as well as participation in politics and decision-making. The study also used information and data culled from official documents, research publications and reports from relevant agencies. The paucity of gender-disaggregated data limits to some extent the analytical aspect of this report in specific areas. An exception is the census and labour force surveys undertaken by the Department of Statistics. 1. 07 In addition,data was also collected using the case study approach where prominent women, who have contributed significantly in their areas of specialisation, were interviewed.Two women high achievers in decision-making and power-sharing positions were interviewed as role models for young women in Malaysia. 1. 08 Apart from the quantitative analysis using time-series data to show trends in women’s progress, this study also attempts to analyse the progress qualitatively by performing in-depth analyses of certain pertinent gender-sensitive indicators. For instance, the high percentage o f women enrolled in universities is further analysed to see whether women undergraduates are mainly enrolled in women-traditional programmes (that is, pursuing degrees in education and other soft sciences) or in nontraditional programmes (such as engineering and computer sciences).Women’s participation in the professional or higher-level (administrative and managerial) occupational categories and the male-female ratio within a profession are used to assess their progress in employment. The number and share of top-level decision-making positions assumed by women were further analysed to measure the gender gap. To measure the achievement of women in politics, the commonly used gender-sensitive indicator is the women’s share of parliamentary seats. 17 The Progress of Women Since Independence IV. OVERVIEW OF THE REPORT 1. 09 This report is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 highlights the government initiatives taken to advance women in important sectors of development, such as the National Policy on Women (1989) and the National Action Plan.A list of recent amendments to existing legislation that have affected women’s advancement and well-being are also highlighted. This chapter also highlights the Government’s commitment at the international level. Chapters 2 to 5 discuss the progress of women in various key areas. 1. 10 Chapter 2 focuses on education and training of women, with highlights on women’s achievement in education at various levels of formal schooling and training. The trends in enrolment rates, or the ratio of male to female student enrolment at various levels of education, are analysed to measure changes in educational attainment of women and gender gaps in education.Other indicators used to highlight the educational attainment of women for the 1957–2000 period include the ratio of female to male students in technical and vocational education, as well as enrolment in technical and non-technical degree pro grammes at te rt i a ry levels. This chapter also identifies the issues, gender barriers and constraints encountered by women in education and training. There is also a discussion on women’s access to non-formal education and training. Indicators used to measure the ad vancement of women in this area include women’s overall participation in training as well as in specific types of training offered by various agencies. 1. 1 In chapter 3, women’s achievements in economic activities for the period 1957–2000 are given prominence. The chapter elaborates the trends in women’s participation in the labour force, by industry and occupational category, in comparison to men. Women’s progress is assessed by analysing the trends and the gender gap in the employment status, employment pattern and skills as well as their untapped potential and low labour force participation rate. Gender-specific issues and constraints associated with women’s work an d productivity are also identified. 1. 12 Chapter 4 traces the progress of women’s health since independence using standard mortality and morbidity indicators.It shows how women in Malaysia have made great strides in achieving a higher level of health 18 The Progress of Women Since Independence status over the past four decades so that today their mortality and morbidity rates are almost on par if not below that of some of the developed countries. This impressive progress is, in part, due to health programmes that incorporated the risk approach strategy and the confidential enquiry on the maternal death approach. The chapter also highlights how the provision of rural health services has contributed to the improvement of the health status of women in the country. It cautions women against several emerging health issues, which they have to face as they enter the new millennium.These issues include concerns for the health of older women as well as adolescents, the threat of infe ctious diseases including HIV/AIDS,domestic violence, and mental and emotional health problems affecting women due in part to their dual and competing role as mothers and wives and their role as employees. 1. 13 In chapter 5, women’s participation in decision-making and power-sharing positions is assessed by analysing the trends and quality of women’s involvement in politics, and as political appointees as well as participants in the public service sector. The number and distribution of female executives in the private sector as well as in non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are also included in the analysis. The findings confirm the wide disparity that exists between men and women in leadership and decision-making positions.The majority of women involved in politics,and as employees in the private sector, cooperatives and NGOs primarily held lower ranking positions. The author attributes the low participation of women in top decision-making or power- sharing positio ns to the strong influence of traditional thinking that â€Å"men are leaders, women are followers† . In general,this traditional gender ideology permeates the thinking process in the selection of candidates for leadership or decision-making positions. V. GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 1. 14 Efforts in economic and social development in Malaysia began with the implementation of the First Five-Year Plan (1956–1960) on the eve of the country’s independence.This plan and the subsequent development plans concentrated on sustaining economic growth,physical development, diversification of agriculture and industrial development with the objectives of expanding employment opportunities and income improvements. The New Economic Policy, launched in 1971, emphasised national unity and nation-building through a two-pronged strategy of 19 The Progress of Women Since Independence eradicating poverty regardless of race and restructuring society so as to eliminate the identifi cation of race with economic functions. None of the development plans, however, gave any special attention to issues and strategies for the advancement of women until the Sixth Malaysia Plan (1991-–1995). It was the first time that a five-year development plan had included a chapter detailing programmes and projects for the development of women.The chapter also contains specific strategies to effectively incorporate women in the process of development in accordance with the objectives of the National Policy on Women (NPW),which are as follows: †¢ †¢ to ensure equitable sharing in the acquisition of resources and information as well as access to opportunities and benefits of development, for men and women;and to integrate women into all sectors of national development in line with their abilities and needs in order to improve the quality of life, eradicate poverty, abolish ignorance and illiteracy and ensure a peaceful and prosperous nation. 1. 15 While the Sixth Pla n recognised women as an important economic resource, it identified the following constraints which were inhibiting the involvement of women in economic activities: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ he dual and, often, competing responsibilities of family and career restrict the mobility and increased participation of women in the labour market; gender differences in schools not only translate into occupational differentiation later; it also limits the adaptability and participation of women in the labour market; social norms and prejudices regarding the role and status of women in society and in the labour market restrain their involvement in economic activities; women with children, who are financially dependent on their husbands, are particularly vulnerable in cases of domestic violence. The lack of skills very often limits their options, thus preventing them from securing alternative sources of income; 20 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ omen are often perceived as secondary earners who only supplement family incomes rather than as co-earners whose economic activities are crucial to the family. Consequently, income-generating programmes targeted at the women generally reinforce their home-maker roles, providing few opportunities for the acquisition of new and more marketable skills; the lack of appropriate management training and the consequent absence of professionalism, inadequate access to credit and a paucity of relevant market information also hinder the participation of women in the economy; and the working environment is generally not conducive to the sustained employment of wives and mothers. This limits the training opportunities available and hampers career development.The separation of home from the workplace and the fixed hours of work constitute additional drawbacks that preclude prolonged female participation in the labour market. †¢ †¢ 1. 16 These issues provided the backdrop for the Government to formulate strategies , and plan for the setting up of an appropriate institutional structure to enhance the social,legal and economic position of women in the next decade. The formulation of an Action Plan to operationalise the NPW in the Seventh Malaysia Plan reflected the Government’s efforts to address these constraints and commitment to include women as equal partners in nation building. The areas included in the Action Plan are: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ trengthening the national machinery for the integration of women in development; raising public awareness and sensitivity towards issues relating to women; mobilising the NGOs to increase their efficiency and effectiveness in undertaking socio-economic programmes; encouraging positive action for the advancement of women in various fields;and 21 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ promoting the role of women in family development. 1. 17 The implementation of the Action Plan, a pioneering effort that formally began in 1990, had resulted in more coherent and focussed programmes to integrate women in development and further elevate their status in society. However, there are still constraints that limit progress. At the start of this 21st century, the social and economic status of women relative to men is still not satisfactory and the disparity may become greater due to the effects of globalisation and use of information and communication technology (ICT).In view of these gaps, strategies to enhance the role of women in development were included as one of the key policy thrusts of the National Vision Policy (NVP) 2001–2010. The NVP states that opportunities in employment, business and social activities will be made available without gender bias, thus promoting equity in opportunities for both men and women. Women’s economic participation is to be enhanced through the provision of greater access to training and retraining, more extensive use of flexible working hours, the provision of crech es as well as facilities to enable them to work from home. Entrepreneurship among women will be promoted actively by providing greater access to information,financial and technical resources. 1. 8 To operationalise the NVP in the medium term, strategies and programmes are contained in the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001–2005). The strategies for the advancement of women focussed on the following: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ increasing female participation in the labour market; providing more education and training opportunities for women to meet the demands of the knowledge-based economy and improve their upward mobility in the labour market; enhancing women’s involvement in business; reviewing laws and regulations that inhibit the advancement of women; improving further the health status of women; reducing the incidence of poverty among female-headed households; 22 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ strengthening research activities to inc rease participation of women in development and enhance their well-being;and strengthening the national machinery and the institutional capacity for the advancement of women. 1. 19 The Action Plan, National Vision Policy and various other strategies to promote gender equality and progress of women represent formal and continuing efforts taken by the Government under the various development plans. Their coherent and effective implementation will determine the extent and depth of the incremental progress of women in Malaysia in the years ahead. VI. ADMINSTRATIVE MACHINERY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN 1. 0 The implementation of policies, strategies and programmes requires a supportive institutional structure and appropriate administrative machinery. Significant progress has been made in the setting up of the required institutional and administrative machinery to plan, coordinate, implement and monitor development programmes for women. The establishment of the Ministry of Women and Fami ly Development in February 2001 marks the culmination of efforts to assign women’s development and issues to a specific ministry. The establishment of this new ministry represents an important change in the mindset of policymakers who have become more gender-sensitive.Currently, the institutional structure for women and development can be categorised into planning, coordinating and monitoring (Ministry of Women and Family Development), advisory and planning (National Advisory Council on the Integration of Women in Development), advocacy (National Council of Women’s Organisations), coordination and monitoring (HAWA) and implementation (line ministries and departments, semi-government and non- government organisations). 1. 21 The Ministry of Women and Family Development is the lead agency to undertake gender responsive planning and policy formulation for women. It is responsible for the integration of women in the national development process through coordination, monito ring and evaluation, planning and policy formulation,and reporting to the Government. Its major 23 The Progress of Women Since Independence objective is to mainstream women in nation-building and strengthen the family institution by integrating gender into all aspects of planning and development.To ensure that gender and family perspectives are integrated into national policies, it undertakes coordination on gender issues between Government agencies, NGOs, the private sector and communities as well as audits existing legislation and regulations that affect the interests of women. Its functions also include increasing opportunities for women to upgrade their socio-economic status, and providing education and training opportunities to women to support its planning functions. To support its planning functions, it undertakes research and development in gender, population,family development and reproductive health. It also acts as the secretariat for the National Advisory Council for the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID) and is the national contact networking with nternational agencies dealing with women’s issues as well as the secretariat for regional and inte rn ational agencies pertaining to women’s programmes. 1. 22 HAWA is a major department under the Ministry and the main contributor to the planning process of the Ministry. It was first set up as the Women’s Affairs Department under the Ministry of Labour, being responsible for the coordination of the development of women. It also acted as the secretariat to the National Advisory Council. In 1978 it was transferred to the Implementation and Coordination Unit (ICU) in the Prime Minister’s Department. In 1983,it was re-designated as a secretariat named HAWA in the Administration and Finance Division of the Prime Minister’s Department. Since 1983 HAWA has undergone several changes.In 1990,it became a government department in the Ministry of National Unity and Social Development, but was placed under the Ministry of Women and Family Development upon its establishment in February 2001. The major responsibilities of HAWA are, among others, to implement the capacity development programmes and projects for women, organise gender sensitisation programmes and gender planning courses to enhance awareness about women’s concerns among policy makers, planners and programmers, and provide skills in integrating issues in development planning and policy formulation. 1. 23 The National Advisory Council on the Integration of Women in Development (NACIWID), a consultative and advisory body to the Government and non-government organisations, was established in 1976 24 The Progress of Women Since Independence n accordance with the United Nations’ Resolution on integrating women into the mainstream of the development process. Its members, who are appointed by the Minister of Women and Family Development, are drawn from women leaders in the community , NGOs, professional bodies, political parties, and the private sector as well as academicians and retired civil servants. NACIWID acts as the main body through which women-related issues are channelled to the relevant authorities, and plans and evaluates activities of women’s organisations. Besides promoting and encouraging research activities, it also communicates with relevant organisations within and without the country to promote national and international understanding. 1. 24 The NationalCouncil of Women’s Organizations (NCWO) is a nonpolitical, non-religious and non-communal organisation, and acts as the umbrella organisation for women NGOs in Malaysia. At present, the NCWO has more than 200 welfare, political,professional and labour organisations affiliated to it, including a number of active and important organisations. The NCWO’s main role is to be a consultative and advisory body to women’s organisations and to bring all these organisations tog ether. It also has a Commission for Action on the National Policy for Women and state level committees. 1. 25 There are various major organisations implementing women in development (WID) programmes.These include the Community Development Division (KEMAS), the National Population and Family Development Board (NPFDB),the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA). KEMAS’s programmes on women focus mainly on family development including home economics such as nutrition and family health at the village level, work-oriented classes such as tailoring and handicrafts and agriculture aimed at producing food for the family or the market, and pre-school programmes such as establishing community pre-school child-care centres and adult literacy programmes. The cultural, social,economic and demographic factors which affect women in development are addressed through activities undertaken by NPFPB. It also promotes population and family development a s well as reproductive health-related concerns.The DOA and FELDA carry out programmes mainly on family development, improvement of the quality of life, entrepreneurship of target groups, and income-generating activities such as training, financial assistance and other inputs for the benefit of women,primarily in FELDA’s 25 The Progress of Women Since Independence agricultural schemes/estates. VII. LEGAL STATUS OF WOMEN 1. 26 Women’s legal status with regard to citizenship, education, employment,legal rights and status in marriage, divorce,and the guardianship of children are embodied in the Federal Constitution as well as in other legislation which have been enacted from time to time. Considerable legislative changes have taken place over time, especially after 1957.New laws have been enacted while existing laws and legislation are continuously being reviewed and amended to preserve, reinforce and protect the rights of women. The adoption of the Women and Girls’ Protection Act 1973 and its 1987 amendments, the implementation of the Domestic Violence Act 1994 in 1996, and the introduction of the Code of Practice on the Prevention and Handling of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace are examples of legislative measures targeted at protecting the dignity of women. Amendments to other pertinent acts and laws such as the Employment Act 1955 and the improved provisions of the Income Tax Act 1967 are aimed at safeguarding the economic interests of women. Women under the Federal Constitution 1. 7 Malaysian women’s rights as citizens to participate in the political and administrative life of the nation are implicitly recognised and guaranteed by the Federal Constitution,which states under Article 8, clause 1,that â€Å"all persons are equal before the law and entitled to the equal protection of the law†. Clause 2 further provides that â€Å"except as expressly authorised by this Constitution,there shall be no discrimination against cit izens on the ground only of religion, race, descent or place of birth in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in administration of any law relating to the acquisition, holding or disposition of any property or the establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation,or employment†.This clause does not contain a specific provision against gender-based discrimination and may allow for protective discrimination against women under the Employment Act. The omission was rectified on 2 August 2001, when the Dewan Rakyat approved an amendment to Article 8(2) to include the word, â€Å"gender† in the categories referred to in the clause, which now readsâ€Å"there shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only of religion, race, descent, place of birth and gender in any law†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Women’s rights are, therefore, now explicitly stated in the Federal 26 The Progress of Women Since In dependence Constitution. 1. 28 The Government had also taken steps to accord equal status to women under the Constitution’s provisions for the award of citizenship and permanent residence.Under A rticle 15 of the Constitution, no conditions were imposed upon foreign wives of citizens to apply for citizenship. However, a subsequent amendment made in 1962 included various conditions, including the â€Å"good character† requirement for foreign wives of citizens when applying for citizenship. By another amendment to Clause 2 of Article 15,citizen rights could be acquired by any child of a citizen. This amendment puts women on par with men as regards the granting of automatic citizenship of children born to them. However, foreign spouses of Malaysian women are denied such rights based on the assumption that, upon marriage, women would follow their husbands to their home countries.With the constitutional amendment of Article 8 (b),steps have been taken to remove the differen tial treatment regarding the acquisition of citizenship rights by the foreign spouses of Malaysian women (as announced by the Deputy Prime Minister cum Minister of Home Affairs on Women’s Day 2001). Employment Legislation and Women 1. 29 The Employment Act 1955 (revised in 1981, 1994 and 1999) is the major legislation which regulates all labour relations, and certain parts apply equally to men and women,such as contracts of service, wages, rest hours, hours of work,holidays, annual leave, sick leave, termination and layoff benefits. There are, however, specific parts in the Act, which pertain only to women, such as maternity protection and night work.There is no stipulation in the Act which prohibits employers paying lower wages to their women employees, as compared to male workers, for doing the same amount of work. Women in the private sector may therefore be subject to wage discrimination. In the public sector, however, women have equal pay for equal work. At present,women in the private sector also do not have any legal redress against wage discrimination. Part VIII of the Employment Act 1955,â€Å"Prohibition Against Nightwork† states that no employer shall require female employees to work between 10 o’clock in the evening and 5 o’clock in the morning in the agricultural or industrial sectors.However, the Employment Women Shift Workers Regulations 1970 stipulates that â€Å"any female employee employed in shift work in any approved undertaking which operates at least two shifts per day may work at such times within the hours 27 The Progress of Women Since Independence of 10 o’clock in the evening and 5 o’clock in the morning, as the Director of Labour may approve† The effect of the 1970 regulations is to allow women . to work at night, with the result that female employees working in night shifts have become the general rule rather than the exception. Section 35 of the Employment Act also prohibits the empl oyment of women in underground work,unless the Minister gives an exemption. . 30 Part IX of the Employment Act provides for paid maternity leave for a period of not less than 60 consecutive days for every female employee in the private sector. In May 1998,the Government reviewed and extended the maternity leave for women employees in the public sector from 42 days to 60 days, for a maximum of up to five deliveries. Public sector women employees can choose to extend their maternity leave up to three months as unpaid leave. Paternity leave of up to threedays is also given to male employees in the public sec tor. 1. 31 In 1998, another amendment was made to the Employment Act, which provides for flexible working hours.This provision expands the opportunities for women,including homemakers, to be gainfully employed in part-time work. It also provides opportunities for employees to create flexibility in work processes and arrangements, such as teleworking, homebased work, job sharing, an d compressed workweek that would enable women employees to balance their work and family demands. Other Laws Affecting the Status of Women 1. 32 All Malaysians have equal right to education under the Constitution of Malaysia. This implies that there is no discrimination against women and men. Article 12(1) states that there shall be no discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of religion, race, descent or place of birth: †¢ †¢ n the administration of any educational institution maintained by a public authority, and in particular, the admission of pupils or students or the payment of fees;or in providing out of the funds of a public authority financial aid for the maintenance of education of pupils or students in any educational institution (whether or not maintained by a public authority and whether within or outside the Federation). 28 The Progress of Women Since Independence 1. 33 The Universities and University Colleges Act 1991 stipulates open membership to al l irrespective of gender. The New Economic Policy of 1970 also provides equal access to educ ational opportunities for both male and female Malaysians. 1. 4 With regard to the legal recognition of the guardianship of children, the Guardianship of Infants Act 1961 initially militated against women. The Act was amended in 1999 to allow for joint guardianship of children in matters relating to immigration and registration. With the implementation of the amendment in 2000 mothers are allowed to sign all documents involving their underaged children. 1. 35 The Income Tax Act 1967 (amended in 1975,1978 and 1991) gives an option to married women to have separate income tax assessment. The clause prohibiting a married working woman from separate income tax assessment was subject to several amendments (1975,1978 and 1991). The amendment of 1991 allowed for separate assessments for married women unless they choose to be assessed jointly.Today, women taxpayers, whose husbands have no taxable in come, are eligible for taxable relief similar to that available to a male taxpayer whose wife has no taxable income. 1. 36 With regard to the protection of women against domestic violence, the Domestic Violence Act was passed in 1994 and implemented in 1996. Domestic violence is now dealt with as a criminal offence with appropriate penalties imposed. Realising that legislation may only remove the more blatant discriminatory practices, the Government and NGOs in Malaysia continue to push for greater transparency of procedures adopted by police personnel, and have urged for the appropriate training and gender sensitisation of the relevant parties.Currently, the NGOs are pushing for a review and amendment of the Act. 1. 37 The Ministry of Human Resources issued the Code of Practice on the Prevention and Handling of Sexual Harassment in the Workplace on 1 March 1999. This Code of Practice contains guidelines to employers on the establishment and implementation of in-house preventive and redress mechanisms to prevent and eradicate sexual harassment at the workplace. This approach is believed to be the most effective way of dealing with the problem. Employers are encouraged to implement policies and programmes on anti-sexual harassment, as well as to provide redress mechanisms at the 29 The Progress of Women Since Independence organisational level. 1. 8 There is also a specific legislation to protect the rights and dignity of women. The Women and Girls Pro te ction Act 1973 and the Child Protection Act 1991 were reviewed and streamlined into the Child Act 2000. Both the Women and Girls Protection Act (which contains provisions for prosecuting persons involved in prostitution and trafficking of women) and the Child Protection Act were criticised as being very vaguely worded and could be liberally interpreted. An underaged girl,if found in a dubious place or circumstances, may be interpreted to be â€Å"in need of protection† and may be detained in a corrective centre. Both Acts contain some aspects of discrimination,which could be damaging to victims. Box 1. : Definition of Discrimination Article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states thatâ€Å"discrimination against women† shall mean: â€Å"any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing,or nullifying the recognition,enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women,of human rights and fundamental freedom in the political,economic, social,cultural,civil,or any other field† . This definition implies that applying a neutral rule for women and men will constitute discrimination if the result is that women do not enjoy the intended benefit. 1. 9 In 1995, prior to the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, Malaysia ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Aga inst Women (CEDAW),with some reservations. VIII. CONCLUSION 1. 40 Malaysian women have made significant progress since Malaysia gained independence in 1957. The progress is perceptible and near universal, with more Malaysian women, in both absolute and relative terms, being 30 The Progress of Women Since Independence involved in all key socio-economic areas than before: in education, in health, in the economy, and in power-sharing and decision-making. The quest for greater gender equality has been relatively successful,although improvements can still be made in certain sectors.It will be necessary for the Government, which has played a leading role in women’s progress in the country, to continue providing the necessary assistance and legislative support to remove persistent barriers and to consolidate further the gains and progress already achieved. 1. 41 The Government’s commitment to improve the status of women has intensified over time. Mainstreaming gender into soc ial and economic development plans is a continuous process to be undertaken by line ministries and state agencies (implementing women specific programmes and projects). Even so, Malaysia is an example of a country which has, since gaining independence, made great progress in improving the quality of life and status of women, particularly in providing them with ever-increasing opportunities to become stakeholders in the country’s economic development. Box 1. : Selected Relevant Declarations and Action Plans Signed by the Government of Malaysia †¢ Equal Remuneration Convention (ILO No. 100),1951; †¢ Discrimination (Employment and Occupational) Convention (ILO No. 111),1958; †¢ First World Conference on Women 1975; †¢ International Women’s Decade (1975–1985); †¢ The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW),1978; †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Third World Conference on Women,1985; Declaratio n on the Advancement of Women in the ASEAN Region,1988; Earth Summit Agenda,1991; Geneva Declaration for Rural Women by the Summit on the Economic Advancement of Rural Women,1992; 31 The Progress of Women Since Independence †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢World Social Development Conference, 1994; International Conference on Population and Development, Cairo, 1994; Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing 1995; World Food Summit, 1996; Micro-Credit Summit, 1997; An Update to the 1995 Commonwealth Plan of Action on Gender and Development: Advancing the Commonwealth Agenda for Gender Equality into the New Millennium (2000–2005);and †¢ Beijing Plus 5, Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development and Peace for the 21st Century (Special Session of the Venereal Assembly, 5–9 June 2000). 32 The Progress of Women Since Independence Chapter 2 EDUC ATION AND TRAINING OF WOMEN I. INTRODUCTION 2. 01 Article 12 (1) of the Federal Constitution which guarantees the r ight to education for all Malaysians regardless of gender has enabled Malaysian women to gain equal access to education and training. They have benefited from the increased access as indicated by the improvement in women’s literacy rates and net enrolment at all levels of education since independence.Education, formal and non-formal has been vital for the personal, social and economic development of the women in Malaysia. An ongoing process,it has been the means for improving the knowledge, skills and attitudes of Malaysian women and their development capacity. With higher educational attainment Malaysian women are able to participate actively in the development of the nation, exercise their voice in the family, the communit y, place of work and the public arena of politics as well as enjoy greater economic independence. Despite the improved educational attainment of Malaysian women, gender differences still exist in enrolment in science and technical subjects,and the educati on they receive has gender stereotypes that perpetuate gender inequality. 2. 2 This chapter will trace the achievement of women in education and training, formal and informal, since independence. The advancement of women in formal education will be discussed in terms of the progress made with regard to accessibility to education as well as the gender-related concerns such as enrolment in science and technology education. Gendersensitive indicators such as the trends in female enrolment, the proportion of male to female student enrolment at the primary, secondary and tert